National Multicultural Interpreter Project
Cultural Knowledge and Sensitivity
Hispanic and Latino - Lecture Notes
I. CULTURAL TERMINOLOGY
A. Complexity of Identity and labels
The word Latin originated just prior to the Roman Empire in what is now called Italy. A tribe of people who called themselves Latins appeared in Italy, and began to subjugate their neighbors. They called their country Latium and named their capital city Rome. The language they spoke was Latin. Eventually they conquered most of the peninsula, and established a city that they called Hispalis. It is not clear if Hispalis was originally, Greek or Phoenician. From the name it appears that the city was originally a Greek colony (Hispalus was a mythical Greek hero who was related to Hercules.)
The Latins were conquered by the Romans who annexed the Iberian Peninsula, and made it aprovince. They called this province Hispania, most likely after the city of Hispalis. Later, the Romans divided their new province into two parts - Hispania Citerior, and Hispania Ulterior. Although the province was later further subdivided, these were the official names of Iberia throughout the Roman Empire. As Rome added more territory to her empire, she began to impose her language, and ways on the conquered people. This eventually led to the creation of several new languages that are now called Latin, or Romance languages (Romance as used here has nothing to do with amorous relations - it is a reference to the city of Rome). Several Latin countries were also created, such as France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Albania, and Romania. The word España (Spain) comes from the Latin word Hispania and not the other way around.
In summation, the term Latin originally referred to the name of the tribes of people that eventually started the Roman Empire and the name of the language that they spoke. The term evolved to indicate the official language of the Roman Catholic Church and to identify an individual from acountry that speaks a Latin language. The term Hispanic is an English term. It is believed that the term was created by the Anglo-Saxons who, having difficulty pronouncing the Latin word Hispania, coined the word
Hispanic. (Source)
B. Hispanic and Latino(a) - Current Usage
In Europe, Latins are generally accepted to be individuals coming from a country where a Latin language is spoken. Individuals coming from France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Albania, and Romania are called Latins. The European view of Latin America is simply as a geographicallocation. Someone from Venezuela, for instance will be seen as Latin American but not necessarily as Latin. The European view of the term Hispanic is fairly precise. It refers to Spain and its culture, including the Spanish-speaking people of Latin America and their culture. The American view of the terms Hispanic and Latino(a) are very different from the European and worldwide view. The United States government, needing to categorized people from Spanish-speaking countries into one neat category such as "White," "Black," "Native American" or "Asian", decided to include the term "Hispanic" on all government forms and applications requiring such information. It's use on the U.S. Census popularized the term and it eventually made its way into the private sector as well. Using the term "Hispanic" alongside "White," "Black," "Native American" and "Asian" has led to some confusion because the terms "White," "Black," "Native American" and "Asian" refer to race while the term "Hispanic" refers to ethnicity. Spanish speakers cannot be categorized as members of a single race. There is absolutely no one Hispanic appearance. Although there are some general tendencies such as brown skin and black hair, you will find Hispanics of light skin and even blond hair. This is because Hispanics are a diverse group of peoples and thus have many physical and characteristic combinations. You can't describe a Hispanic just by looking at his/her features just as you cannot describe someone as an American. There are Hispanics of many races including White, Black, Native Indian and even Asian. For example, the president of Peru, Fujimori, is Japanese; the former president of Chile has the Welsh name of Aylwin; the president of Argentina, President Menem, has Arab blood. Mexico's strong Native Indian heritage is very apparent in the Mexican people. In contrast, Argentineans' Italian and Germanm heritage makes Argentinean American look more like non- Hispanic whites and a U. S. Costa Rican Black may look like an ordinary Black in the United States.
As a result, in the United States the terms Hispanic and Latino(a) are often misapplied and confused, especially misapplied to describe a “race” of people. The terms mean different things to different people. For example, in some areas of the United States. Puerto Ricans and Cubans are considered Latinos but Mexicans and Colombians are not. In other areas, Latin and Latino mean different things.
(Source: 1 ) (Source 2)
C. Hispanic or Latino(a) - Preferred Term
In the United States the terms "Hispanic" and" Latino(a) are used interchangeably even among Spanish-speaking individuals. For example, in a 1999 issue of Hispanic, a magazine for Spanish-speaking individuals, there is an article titled "The 1999 Hispanic Entrepreneur 100." The editors of the magazine described the article as the "second annual list of fastest-growing Latino-owned businesses in the United States. Ranked by growth rate, these diverse businesses were nominated for successful Hispanic Entrepreneur by the U.S. Hispanic Chamber of Commerce (USHCC) which provides a valuable resource for Hispanic entrepreneur." (Hispanic Magazine, April 1999. pp 2,6.)
Although the terms are used interchangeably and there is no agreement in the Spanish-speaking community, the term Latino(a) is generally not preferred by Mexican Americans. Individuals of Mexican descent see the term Latino(a) as someone from a Latin American country (which does not include Mexico). Additionally, most individuals from Spanish-speaking countries prefer to identify themselves by their country of origin, such as Puerto Rican, Mexican, Colombian, etc., NOT by the term Hispanic or Latino. Mexicans who are American citizens prefer the term Mexican-American or just American. When in need of a term, the best term to use is the term preferred by the individual in question - ask the person which term he/she prefer.
D. Hispanic Deaf, Deaf Hispanic, Hispanic Latino(a), or Latino(a) Deaf - Preferred Term
There is also no consensus within the Deaf community on which term to use - Deaf Hispanic, Hispanic Deaf, Deaf Latino(a) or Latino(a) Deaf. The literature itself shows no consensus although the term Hispanic Deaf is used most frequently. Delgado (1984), Cohen (1993), Garcia (1984, 1993), Ramos, (1997) Rodriguez (1991) all use the term "Hispanic Deaf." The organizers of the first conference on Deaf Spanish-speaking individuals also grappled with this issue and decided on using the term Hispanic Deaf as evidenced by the conference being called "The Hispanic Deaf Experience: Excellence and Equity." When used in conjunction with a country, the terminology used most frequently is to say Deaf followed by the nationality, i.e. Deaf Mexican is the term most frequently used instead of Mexican Deaf, as indicated by Sedano (1998) and
various newspapers articles. (Source: Delgado(1984). Ramos (1997)
E. Additional Terms - Mestizo, Chicano, La Raza, People of Color, Spanish Mestizo - The intermingling of Spaniards and Native Indians in Mexico produced a mixed race referred to as "Mestizo." This term is commonly used to recognize US citizens who are descendants of Mexicans, following the pattern sometimes used to identify the extraction of other ethnic Americans (e.g., African American.) This term is acceptable to many Mexican descendants. However, for those who do not identify with a Mexican heritage, but rather with a Spanish heritage, it is unacceptable. (NOTE: In 1609, eleven years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock, the Mestizos settled in what is now Santa Fe, New Mexico.
The culture and identify of Northern New Mexicans represents another unique experience. Chicano - Chicano arose during the Mexican-American political movement in the 1960's. This term generally refers also to the Mestizo people of Mexican extraction. It is a term that may be acceptable or unacceptable since it may signify people of lower economic status and/or imply political radicalism/separatism. A more detailed description can be found under pejorative terms. La Raza - The term "La Raza" has its origins in early 20th Century Latin American literature, and translates into English most closely as "the people," or, according to some scholars, " People of the New World." The term was coined by Mexican scholar José Vasconelos to reflect the fact that the people of Latin America are a mixture of many of the world's races, cultures, and religions - Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans, and Arabs and Jews - "old world" and "new world." Subsequent scholars built on this idea, pointing out that no other area of the world
has experienced such a mix of race and culture. Some people have mis-translated "La Raza" to mean "The Race," implying that it is a term meant to exclude others. In fact, the full term coined by Vasconcelos, "la Raza Cósmica," meaning the "cosmic people" was developed to reflect not purity but the mixture of inherent in the Hispanic people - meaning that Hispanics share with all other peoples of the world a common heritage and destiny and that Latinos provide an example of a world in which traditional concepts of race can be transcended. To some people, the term also is used for "El Día de la Raza", "The Day of the Races," or the day celebrating the union of two races or ethnic groups - the Spanish and the Amerindians. It is celebrated in much of Latin America. (Source: Novas, Himilce. Everything You Need To Know About-Latino History, 1994,1998)
People of Color - This term is used to refer to anyone who is non-White, i.e. Blacks, Hispanic/Latinos, Asians, Native Americans, etc.
Spanish - Besides its use to signify a language, the term "Spanish" is used for the native people of Spain. The term should only be used in these two contexts and not for someone who speaks Spanish. It is as incorrect to use "Spanish" to refer to any and all Spanish-speakers as the term "English" would be to refer to citizens of New Zealand, Australia or the United States who all speak English. (Source)
F. Pejorative Terms
Many terms carry a negative connotation. These include but are not limited to: Chicano(a) - This term can be traced to the 1930's and 40's when poor, rural Mexicans were
imported to the US to provide cheap labor. It was insulting to be identified by this name. Mexican-American activists who took part in the Brown Power movement of the 60's and 70's in the southwest US appropriated the term and it has now come into widespread usage. Today, many Mexican-Americans are proud to call themselves Chicano(a) and prefer this term to Mexican-American. Among more "assimilated" Mexican-Americans, the term still retains an unsavory connotation particularly because it is preferred by political activist
(Source)
Pachuco - This term was popular in the 40's and 50's for Mexican American youth who expressed their rebellion against Anglo society by a distinctive style of clothes, haircut, and walk. (Source: Two Eagles in the Sun by Campbell, R. C., 1995, p 7)
Cholo - This is the modern Mexican term for barrio youth who resemble the pachucos. (Source: Two Eagles in the Sun by Campbell, C. Richard, 1995, p 8)
Pocho(a) - The term Pocho is used to identify a Mexican who has become agringado/a - too yankeedied - a wanna be American. The pocho is seen as someone corrupted by Anglo culture. He is seen as an in-between person - not accepted by his own people because he has become something of a traitor and still a "greasy Mexican" to the Anglos he tries to imitate and gain acceptance from, even if he has served in the American Army during wartime. (Source: West, John W. (1988). Mexican American Folklore. p.133)
Vendidos - Vendidos (turncoats) is a term used for people of Mexican origin who collaborate with the dominant "oppressors" (Anglo provider). An example of how this term is used was when the League of Urban Latin American Citizens (LULAC) was formed. In the early years of the United States many Mexican-Americans wanted to revolt and regain the territories lost to the United States by Mexico after the Mexico-Texas war. Others wanted to defy the authority of the dominating population. In those days, Mexican Americans had to be very careful when they gathered. If they gathered in large numbers, they would cause suspicion and face charges of communism. The founders of LULAC had seen many Mexican American organizations flourish and disappear within a few years often without any accomplishments. They were determined not to allow the same thing to occur to LULAC, and thus worked closely with Anglo society. Many Mexican Americans considered LULAC members a group of "vendidos" (turncoats). They could not understand why LULAC members would go out of their way to embrace an Anglo society that was so cruel to Mexican Americans. (Source:)
Wetback/Mojado - These terms were used for undocumented Mexicans who crossed the borderinto the United States illegally. It is an insulting term and should never be used to describe a person of Mexican heritage. Other terms used as insults are wetback or “mojado”, spic, and beaner/ or rice and beaner.
II. Demographics Within the United States
A. United States Census
As of 1999, approximately 12% of the United States population was of Hispanic origin (32 million people.) Of these 32 million people of Hispanic origin, 65% were of Mexican origin, 14% from Central and South America, 10% Puerto Rican, and 4% Cuban. (Note: These totals do not include persons living in Puerto Rico, an American territory). The latest government figures can be obtained from the U.S. Census website;).
According to the 1990 U.S. Census, Hispanics are the fastest growing minority group in the United States. Several factors have contributed to the tremendous increase in the Hispanic population since 1970, among them a higher birth rate than the rest of the population and substantial immigration from Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America. The Mexican population itself doubled between 1970 and 1980 and nearly doubled again by 1990. Both the Cuban and Puerto Rican populations grew at a rate four times as fast as the nation. Other Hispanic populations grew dramatically between 1980 and 1990 partly as a result of the large influx of Central and South American during this period. Although there has been a large influx of Hispanics into the United States, the majority of individuals of Hispanics descent living in the United States are native born - 60% of Hispanics are native born Americans.
B. Geographic National Distribution
The vast majority (77%) of the Hispanic population resides in the South (33%) and West (44%).
Hispanics are concentrated in a small number of states:
California-( 34.4%)
Texas-(19.4%)
New York-(9.9%)
Florida-(7.0%)
Illinois-(4.0%)
New Jersey (3.3%)
Arizona (3.1%)
New Mexico (2.6%)
C. Projections
By the middle of the next century the nation's Hispanic population is expected to reach 96.5 million (24.5 percent of the nation's total population). By 2005 it is projected that Hispanics will surpass non-Hispanic African Americans to become the nation's largest minority group. Looking at children under 18, Hispanics already surpass non-Hispanic African-Americans. On July 1, 1998, there were 10.5 million Hispanic children in the United States, outnumbering non-Hispanic
African American children by 35,000.
III. Historical Perspectives
A. The Maya and Aztecs
The two main cultures that dominated Mexico and Central America before the Spanish conquestwere the Maya and the Aztecs. Their civilization are known as Mesoamerican, or Middle America. The Olmec prospered from 1150 B.C. to 500 A.D. The highly developed intellectual life of the Olmeca gave rise in ensuing centuries to extraordinary scientific and artistic accomplishments of the Maya and Aztec. The Maya, decedents of the Olmec, flourished in southern Mexico, especially in the present-day states of Chiapas, Tabasco. Campeche, Yucatán, and Quintana Roo, as well as in Belize, Guatemala and Honduras between that period. The Maya were the first peoples of the New World to keep historical records. Their written history began in 50 B.C., when Spain and the rest of Europe did not yet exist as national and cultural entities. They recorded their history not on parchment, but on jade, human bones, pots, stone monuments, and the walls of their impressive palaces. The present-day states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán, and Quintana Roo, as well as Belize, Guatemala and Honduras encompass the lands of the Mayans. The Maya were the most advanced of all Columbian civilizations in the Americans, in the areas of architecture, sculpture, painting, mathematics, and astronomy. They are particularly known for their monumental architecture, including pyramids that tourists climb to this day. The Maya's skills in mathematics were extraordinary; they formulated the first system of numeration by position that includes the concept of zero. The faces of the Maya are reflected in the faces of millions of people in Mexico, Central America, and the United States, and their pyramids continue to loom tall, a constant reminder of their noble ancestry. The Aztecs are the people who came from Aztlan, the mythical origin of the Aztec peoples. Azteca in the Nahuatl language means the people who came from Aztlan. The Aztecs who left Aztlan wandered for many years and finally settled in Coatepec (Snake Hill in Nahuatl) near Tula.
There, the Aztecs built a city and lived for many years. When the Aztecs were in Coatepec, a dispute arose. Some of the Aztecs who followed Huitzilopochtli (a god-left handed hummingbird - who represented the sun god and his sister Malinal Xochitl-grass flower, manifested as the moon.) wanted to leave and some of the Aztecs who followed Coyolxuahqui (Huitilopochtli's sister) wanted to stay in Coatepec. In the battle that ensued the followers of Huitzilopochtli won and they changed their names to Mexicas. The sculpture of Coyolxuahqui's dismembered body lies today at the foot of the Temple Mayor the religious center of the Mexica people. The Mexicas, therefore, are the Aztecs that split from the other Aztecs in Coatepec. The Mexicas were led by Huitzilopochtli. They continue south and founded the city of Tenochtitlan (what is now Mexico City) in Anahuac. Tenochtitlan in Nahuatl means the place of prickly pear cactus. The city of Tenochtitlan was built in the middle of Lake Texcoco. Anahuac or the Valley of Mexico was full of lakes at the time the first Europeans came to Mexico. Anahuac in Nahuatl means "Near the water or sea." Tenochtitlan, like Venice in Italy, was a city built on water with many canals. Canals and canoes were an important method of transportation for the Mexicas. (Source: Novas, Himilce. Everything You Need to Know About Latino History;)
B. Spain's Impact
Christopher Columbus, an explorer from Spain, was long credited with finding the New World in 1492 and bringing Spanish culture into the region. Recent studies have shown that he was not the first to set foot in the New World. However, his arrival had a profound impact on the Indian communities. He is credited with not only bringing Spanish culture into the region, he also brought slavery and the destruction of the indigenous population. In just 100 years the indigenous population dropped from twenty-five million people to one million. The destruction of the indigenous population was not limited to the New World. In Haiti, for example, half of the Indian population died within two years of Columbus arrival and by 1650 they were completely eradicated. (Source: Novas, Himilce. (1994, 1998). Everything You Need to Know About- Latino History.)
C. México
Cortéz and Doña Marina/La Malinche. - The Spaniard, Hernando Cortéz, brutally slaughtered the Aztec people during his conquest of Mexico. The Aztec population was either saved or destroyed with the help of a woman whom Mexicans still debate today - the woman called "Doña Marina" by the Spaniards and "La Malinche" (the Captain's woman) by the Aztecs. That she was a fearless, loyal and determined woman is not debated. What is debated is whether she was a traitor who, in Hernando Cortéz’s own words, "owe this conquest of New Spain to Doña Marina", or if she was the heroine who helped save Mexico from its blood-thirsty rulers - and in doing so played a major role in fashioning what is today one of the most dynamic societies in all Latin America. Doña Marina, or La Malinche, was given to Cortéz as a slave and rose to become Cortéz’s interpreter, secretary, and mistress - in the process becoming the mother of the first "Mexican." She was offered to Cortéz as a slave by the Cacique of Tabasco along with 19 other young
women. When Cortéz lost his interpreter on a shipwrecked off Cozumel, he was advised that one of the women given to him in Tabasco spoke "Mexican." As Cortéz's interpreter, her supporters believe that she saved thousands of Indian lives by enabling Cortéz to negotiate with the indigenous people rather to an slaughtering them. Others believe that without her, Cortéz would have failed. Cortéz himself, in a letter preserved in the Spanish archives, said that "After God we owe this conquest of New Spain to Doña Marina." Thus the conflict in emotions between those who believe she was a heroine and those who feel she was a traitor. The conflict can still be found in the use of the word "Malinchista" which has been used by some to describe those who dislike Mexicans.
If modern-day Mexicans are a blend of Spanish and Indian blood, Doña Marina's son was the first "Mexican" whose career we can follow. He rose to high a government position and was a "Comendador" of the Order of St. Jago. In 1548, he was accused of conspiring against the Viceroy, was tortured and executed. (NOTE: The name given to her by the Aztecs, La Malinche, means "the captain's woman." In the book Conquest of Mexico (perhaps the best known book on the subject), Prescott tells us that Cortez was always addressed as "Malinche" which he translated as Captain and defined "La Malinche" as the "the Captain's woman.")
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The Alamo and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. - In 1823 the Mexican government granted Stephen F. Austin, an American frontiersman, permission to establish a settlement in Texas, provided that he and his fellow American colonists obeyed Mexican law, become Mexican citizens, convert to Catholicism, and forbid slavery on their lands. Within ten years the number of Americans living in Texas as Mexican citizens rose to about 50,000. However, Austin and the colonists did not abide strictly by Mexican law. Many, including Austin, brought in hundreds of Africans to work the cotton fields as slaves. The Mexicans finally had enough and sent soldiers into Texas territory with the intent of expelling Austin and all the Americans in his colony. When Santa Anna, leader of the Mexican Army, captured the Alamo (a mission and fort located in San Antonio, Texas) and in the process killed 182 Texans, including several famous and well-known Texans, it gave rise to the battle cry "Remember the Alamo." It also planted the seeds of ethnic prejudice and intolerance against Mexicans. Forgotten was the fact that many Mexicans fought alongside American Texans against Santa Anna; forgotten was the fact that it was a Mexican woman who played a prominent role in the defeat of Santa Anna; forgotten was the fact that it was the American colonists who had started the conflict by refusing to follow their agreement with the Mexican government. The only thing worth remembering was "Remember the Alamo!
Anglo hatred against Mexico and anything Mexican exploded with a vengeance. Suddenly Mexicans whose families lived within the borders of Texas for untold generations were hated and viewed as defenders of Santa Anna. When the conflict ended, the seeds of hatred, prejudice and intolerance against Mexicans living in the United States, especially Texas, continued to grow and spread. Even today the hatred and prejudice can still be found. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the war with Mexico, was signed in February, 1848 by Nicholas P. Trust for the United States and by a special commission representing the collapsed government of Mexico. Trust disregarded a recall to Washington and negotiated the treaty in violation of most of his instructions. The United States Senate reluctantly approved the treaty. Under the treaty, Mexico ceded to the United States Upper California and New Mexico (including Arizona) and recognized United States claims over Texas with the Rio Grande as it’s southern boundary. The United States in turn paid Mexico $15,000,000., assumed the claims of American citizens against Mexico, recognized prior land grants in the Southwest, and offered citizenship to any Mexicans residing in the area.
Mexico did not just lose almost half of her territory, including land that now makes up the Southwestern United States. The original Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo protected the land rights and citizenship of Mexicans. Richard Griswold del Castillo, a San Diego State University history professor, and author of The Treaty of Guadalupe: A Legacy of Conflict., examined the document and its 23 articles negotiated by both countries. He was startled to find that article 10 was missing. That article, which was deleted by the United States Senate upon ratification, explicitly protected the lands rights of Mexicans. Additionally, article 9, which deals with citizenship rights, was weakened. (Source: )
Novas, Himilce. Everything You Need to Know About-Latino History)
D. Puerto Rico
Spanish Territory. - When Columbus landed in Puerto Rico in 1493, Tainos, whose culture was the first influence in Puerto Rican culture, inhibited the island. The first shipload of slaves that Ponce de León brought to Puerto Rico in 1513 carried smallpox with them which took thousands of Taino lives. By 1515, fewer than four thousand Taino remained in Puerto Rico - compared to the thirty or forty thousand that Columbus had found. Although Ponce de León did not slaughter the Tainos, he did force the Tainos into slavery. A few managed to escape into the remote mountains. Eventually they intermarried with the poor Spanish farmers and became known a jíbaros. Because of industrialization and migration to the cities few real jíbaros remain in Puerto Rico today. Between the years 1530 and 1540 the slave population reached its height surpassing Spaniards
by 5 to 1. Eventually there were free black citizens, freed slaves, and cimarrones (escaped slaves). Slavery was abolished on March 22, 1873.
The African slaves and Ladinos (Christian - convert slaves who spoke bozal Spanish) that accompanied Ponce de León to Borinquen (Puerto Rico) had a lasting effect on Puerto Rican culture through foods such as gandules, cocos, bacalao, yames, funche, plátanos and pasteles; through music such as bomba and plena; and in their vocabulary with words like borundanga, and fufú. The most distinct African cultural print comes from Yoruba tribes in Africa. The African tribal dance is also strongly rooted in the formation of Puerto Rican music and dance. Puerto Rico's negroid poems by Luis Pales Matos and Fernando Fortunato Vizcarondo and others are a record of Puerto Rico's African heritage.
Part of the undisputed African legacy on Puerto Rican culture includes a peculiar speech pattern. The West Africans introduced to the Island spoke bozal Spanish, a mixture of Portuguese, Spanish, and Congo. Many Puerto Ricans have the habit of swallowing the "s" and often pronounce the "r" as an "l". This is because in the African tongues there is no "s" nor "r." The Spanish language that Puerto Ricans speak is a mixture too, different somewhat from Castillian Spanish, with many words borrowed from the pre-Colombian Amerindian tongue right up to modern-day English. Puerto Rico remained a Spanish possession for over four centuries until 1898 when Spain ceded Puerto Rico (along with Cuba, Guam, Philippines and Wake Island) to the United States as part of the Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish-American War. American Territory. - Two years later the Foraker Act made Puerto Rico a territory of the United States. Under the Foraker Act, the United States appointed an American as Governor of Puerto Rico and imposed a heavy tariff to protect American sugar and tobacco producers from Puerto Rican competition. On March 2, 1917, under heavy pressure from the island and the threat of
World War I, President Wilson signed the Jones Act granting United States citizenship to all Puerto Ricans. Over 20,000 Puerto Ricans fought in World War I with thousands dying on the front lines. Additionally, Puerto Ricans bought over 10 million dollars in war bonds and donated hundreds of thousands of dollars.
In July 1950, the United States Congress enacted Public Law 600. It provided that existing laws, which defined the political, economic, and fiscal relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States, should remain in full force. It also authorized Puerto Rico to draft and approve its own Constitution, which took effect on July 25, 1952. Puerto Rico's relationship with the United States is referred to as commonwealth status. (NOTE: Guam and Wake Island still remain under control of the United States while Cuba and the Philippines are independent countries - Cuba declared its independence in 1902 and the Philippines winning independence in 1946.) Since Puerto Rico is a United States territory and its residents are American citizens, there are no travel restrictions to other United States areas and no customs duties or quotas on shipments between Puerto Rico and the U.S. mainland. Products manufactured in Puerto Rico are "Made inthe USA." The people of Puerto Rico do not vote in national elections. A Resident Commissioner who has a voice in the House of Representatives but no vote represents them in Congress. Most federal taxes are not levied in Puerto Rico. No federal income tax is collected from island residents on ordinary income, except in cases of Federal employees. Spanish and English are the official languages of Puerto Rico. English is a compulsory second language in schools and is widely used in business, industry, research, and education. (Source: Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce of South Florida)
E. Other Spanish-Speaking Countries
As the history of Mexico and Puerto Rico indicates, although the Hispanic community shares a common ancestry and language, they are quite a diverse people with diverse history and cultures. Space does not allow a detailed explanation of every Spanish-speaking country. The following is information that might prove useful to the reader. Central and South Americans - The majority of South Americans who immigrated to the United States after 1970 were motivated by a combination of economic and social political conditions in their countries of origin. Many of them were seeking economic opportunities that would benefit family members who remained in their countries of origin. Others, left their counties as a result of political instability and the rise of military dictatorships in much of South America. Most South Americans immigrants settled in urban areas. Very small numbers of South Americans have settled in rural areas in the United States. The majority are concentrated in the Northeast, in New York and Chicago, and on the West coast, in San Francisco and Los Angeles. Here, South Americans have found jobs in the professional, service, and manufacturing sectors. In New York, many South Americans resettled in the borough of Queens where various subgroups live in separate ethnic neighborhoods. In all these cities, South Americans have settled in and outside
of established Latino communities.
Brazilians - Brazilian Americans have roots in Brazil, a South American country that was conquered by the Portuguese and not the Spanish. Brazilian Americans are thus of Portuguese, not Spanish, ancestry, and therefore do not qualify as Latinos. However, many see themselves as part of a larger pan-Latin American diaspora and have forged close ties with the Latin community. (Source: Novas, Himilce. Everything You Need to Know About-Latino History)
However, many individuals may identify with being Latino(a).
Cuban Americans, Cubans or Cubanos - The United States long coveted Cuba. Serious proposals to buy or seize it from Spain have been debated in Congress and the press at least since 1869. American corporations were already invested there, especially in the sugar industry. The war of independence, Cuba's second generation, not only interfered with production, it also damaged consumption on the island, as the middle class was less able to purchase U.S. goods. After Cuba became independent, many Cubans tried to come to America. Different immigrants from Cuban have had different historical experiences. Cuban families that settled in Tampa in the 1890's may have little sympathy for the much larger group that arrived after 1960, and those who came in the 1960's may scorn the general poorer, and darker, immigrants who arrived in the Marel boatlift in 1980. (Source: Fox, Gregory. Hispanic Nation: Culture, Politics, and the Construction of Identity.)
Dominican Republicans - From 1930 to 1961, the Dominican Republic experienced one of the most violent dictatorships in world history. The nation suffered tremendously under the rule of dictator Rafael Trujillo, who answered dissent with genocidal massacres and terror inflicted by his secret police. Few managed to escape Trujillo's Dominican Republic. In 1990, Dominican Americans numbered 506,000. Over half called New Jersey and New York home, with New York boasting the largest Dominican population outside of Santo Domingo. (Source: Novas, Himilce. Everything You Need to Know About-Latino History. (1998)
IV. Positive Cultural Contributions of Hispanic or Latino(a)s
A. Sources of negative portrayal Latin Lovers Stereotype - "The Don Juan Syndrome" Throughout cinematic and television history, Latinos have been relegated to portraying several stereotypes. Latin men have portrayed some of the most virile, passionate, and forbidden characters on the screen. With their swarthy good looks and smoldering eyes, these "Latino Lovers" have caused the female moviegoers to swoon for decades. But, unlike his blond counterpart, the Latin Lover was generally not cast in the leading role. Mostly, they have become the comic character as the "male buffoon" incarnated as Sergeant Garcia in Walt Disney's Zorro series and Leo Carrillo's “Pancho” in The Cisco Kid television series of the early fifties. The buffoon character usually used his broken English or feisty temper for comic relief. It wasn't until the late eighties that Latinos were recognized as members of mainstream culture with the release of highly acclaimed motion pictures like Valdez's La Bamba (1987), an account of the life of Richie Valens, a Latino rock and roller of the fifties; and Ramon Menendez's Stand and Deliver (1988), recounting the true story of the inspirational Mexican American math teacher Jaime Escalante. However, according to Wilson and Gutierrez, who also penned Minorities and the Media. (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1985), films in general still portray Latinos as hoodlums and drug runners. (Source: Hispanic Magazine. October 1998)
B. Positive Contributions of Hispanica/Lationos(as)
Education
Rafael Cordero - A free black man born in San Juan on October 24, 1790. Most free black men were poor and illiterate, but he was different. Very little is known about him. He was the son of Lucas Andino and Rita Molina. No one knows why he used the name Cordero, but his sister used it also. At that time Puerto Rico was a colony with more free blacks than slaves. His parents, both free blacks, were educated. They could read and they taught their children at a time and place when most of the White population was illiterate. Cordero's story is extremely unusual. He was a cigar maker and had his own shop in a very poor section in San Juan. He began teaching black children how to read and write and spent time tutoring them in the classics. Back then there were only two schools for children in the entire island. Soon Cordero was teaching White children as well. He taught without pay for it was not until his later years that the government recognized him and budgeted $15.00 per month for his school.
Cordero's alumni adored and revered him, remembering to visit him often. Many went on to become civic leaders. His was an integrated school. His students fought for the abolition of slavery. After his death on July 5th 1868 a former student, the print shop owner, printed a Biography in his honor: "Bless his memory!" pleading to the former students of this great man. The Maestro's funeral was a grand event. It was attended by former students that included heads of state, priest, scientists, business men, doctors, lawyers, politicians, young children, grandfathers and grandmothers. More than two thousand people participated in the funeral march. The Maestro was taken to the cemetery on the shoulders of his former pupils. A band of former students who had become musicians played at the funeral. Heading the procession were his school children, carrying sweet smelling lilacs. Today there is a school and a street named for him in San Juan. A plaque on Luna Street commemorates the house where he lived and taught.
Gloria Matta Tuchman - Braving death threats, nasty telephone calls, and hate mail because of her support and authorization of Proposition 227 (a bill that ended bilingual education in California), Gloria Matta Tuchman paved a road less traveled in primary and secondary education. With the passage of Proposition 227, she helped set the trend in education toward English - immersion instruction for non-English-speaking students. Gloria Matta Tuchman, an elementary school teacher, is running for superintendent of public instruction in California. If elected, she will be the first Hispanic to hold that post. Source: Hispanic Magazine. (November 1998. P.19.)
Religion
Father Alberto Cutié - At thirty years old, spawned a Spanish-Language program on Telemundo, that is described by publicists as "a provocative talk show for the new millennium" however, the themes discussed are as old as Methuselah. The one-hour program's format allows invited guests to first meet with Padre Alberto to discuss their problems while “el padrecito” offers encouragement. "Diálogo," the latter half of the show, is for audience members, guests, and experts mostly psychologists and social workers -to talk. Padre Alberto, a personal and witty priest, was born to Cuban parents in San Juan, Puerto Rico, where he attended public schools and St. Vincent de Paul Region Seminary. He was ordained in 1995, and is now a full-time priest at St. Patrick church in Miami. He is required to say Mass, teach Sunday school, and counsel youth. "Kids need parental authority and guidance. They lack direction, someone to talk to, to show them the way," he says. More importantly, Padre Alberto is committed to Latinos. "This programs lends itself well to Hispanics because so many of them are Catholics. And as católicos they have the same beliefs and traditions I espouse," he adds.
(Source: Hispanic Magazine. (Dec. 1999
Arts
Jesse Treviño - Veteran Jesse Treviño, a native San Antonian of Mexican descent, earned a Bachelor's degree from Our Lady of the Lake University and a master's degree in studio art from the University of Texas at San Antonio. Treviño has gone on to become one of San Antonio's foremost visual artists. In 1995 he became the first Mexican American awarded a one-man show at the San Antonio Museum of Art, an institution he had helped inaugurate in 1981 as part of a group show. Treviño has always loved to draw. Living in Greenwich Village, Treviño painted portraits to earn money until his draft notice arrived. When Uncle Sam came calling, Treviño was
told he could return to Mexico since he was born in Monterrey in 1946. He chose to serve in the armed forces. He was with the infantry in Mekong Delta, where his right hand was destroyed in a firefight with the Viet Cong. He became a naturalized citizen after returning from Vietnam in 1970. While recuperating, Treviño made the difficult decision to take up art again. Gradually he taught himself to draw and paint with his left hand. Treviño had done several painting. Some were scenes of the daily lives of those who inhabited the barrio - his home. Collectors of his work include Great Britain's Prince Charles, former Mexican president Carlos Salinas de Gortari, and the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas. A public unveiling of his most recent project is tentatively scheduled to take place during Hispanic Month. In the mural "In Spirit of Healing," the child represents "the importance of children" and how important it is to tend to rather than neglect our children. A symbol of protection and love, the guardian angel also reflects the hospital's mission. Santa Rosa Hospital, according to a press release, is the only one of six hospitals in the state dedicated to the care of children, and it's the only one of its kind in South Texas. Treviño's brilliantly-hued mural, which is being assembled under a shroud of secrecy in the shadows of downtown, features a child who cradles a dove, while a guardian angel looks on. “This mural is meant to bring people together,” says the artist.
(Source: Hispanic Magazine. (Sept. 1997)
José Campeche (1752-1809) - Born in San Juan on January 6th, 1752 to a freed African slave and a Canary Islander. Campeche became Puerto Rico's first and one of its most prominent "painters." He never left the island and had no formal schooling in his chosen profession. Campeche produced around 400 pieces of art and became known as "the most gifted of Latin American rococo artist." Much of his art reflected his religious devotion, but he was also known for his talents as a portrait artist. Today his art is found over all Latino America and in Europe.
José Vicente Ferrer (1912-1992) - Born in Santurce on January 8, 1912. Ferrer was an actor, director, and producer noted for his Academy Award winning performance in the film “Cyrano de Bergerac” (1950). Active both in the theater and films, Ferrer portrayed “Iago” in a stage production of “Othello” (1943) and Toulouse-Lautrec in the film “Moulin Rouge” (1952). He directed the plays “Stalag 17" (1951) and “The Shrike” (1952). Later films include “Dune” (1984).
Raul Julia (1944-1994) (Raul Rafael Carlos Julia y Arcelay) - Born in San Juan on March 9, 1944, an actor who proved his versatility on both stage and screen. Raul Julia made his New York City debut in 1964 in a Spanish-language play. He worked on Joseph Papp's New York Shakespeare Festival “Macbeth” (1966), “Two Gentlemen of Verona” (1971) for which he won the first of his four Tony nominations, “Mack the Knife in The Threepenny Opera” (1976). Julia's film career, which began in 1971, ran the gamut from the comic - “The Gumball Rally” (1976), “The Addams Family” (1991), and its sequel “Addams Family Values” (1993) - to the biographical - “Romero” (1988), in which he played the Salvadoran archbishop, and “The Burning Season” (1994), about Brazilian labor leader Chico Mendes - to the tragic - “Kiss of the Spider Woman” (1985). He died
on October 24, 1994.
Lola Rodríguez De Tió (1843-1924) - Lola was born in San Germán on September 14, 1843. Her poetic talents were evident early in her life. She was the first Puerto Rican - born poet to establish a reputation throughout the West Indies. In 1868, inspired by the call for Puerto Rican independence known as the "Grito de Lares," she wrote patriotic lyrics to the tune of "La Borinqueña." Lola and her husband were deported for their separatist's efforts. In 1876 she published her first book of poetry, Mis Cantares. She is best known for her patriotic poetry about Puerto Rico as well as Cuba, where she lived for many years. She was elected a member of the Cuban Academy of Arts and Letters. Rodríguez de Tió's most famous poem, "Cuba y Puerto Rico Son" was first published in the collection Mi Libro de Cuba in 1893. She died in Cuba, on November 10, 1924. Since her death, Lola has been credited for her suggestion that Puerto Ricans use the Cuban flag with its colors reversed.
Luis Lloréns Torres (1876-1944) - Luis Lloréns Torres was born in Collores in the municipality of
Juana Díaz, Puerto Rico on May 14, 1876. A multi-talented gentleman, Luis studied in Spain and became a lawyer by profession but also delved into politics and drama as a writer. His work is nationalistic and is known as "criollismo," because it tells of customs and traditions of the island. Lloréns Torres founded La Revista de las Antillas, a literary publication in 1913. His books include Al Pie de la Alhambra, Sonetos Sinfónicos, Voces de la Campana Mayor and Alturas de America. His "décimas" are works not only of art but of love. Lloréns died in San Juan on June 16, 1944.
Luis Muñoz Rivera (1859-1916) - Luis Muñoz Rivera was born in Barranquitas on July 17th,1859. Muñoz Rivera is one of the best, if not the best, of Puerto Rican lyricist and political poets. A self-educated man, Muñoz Rivera excelled and was best known as a politician, but was also an accomplished journalist, poet and orator. In 1880 he founded a newspaper called La Democracia which advocated independence from Spain. Muñoz Rivera was a major political leader while Puerto Rico was under Spanish rule and even after the United States invasion. He founded and helped found political parties, and became an elected member of the Chamber in 1906. Later he was appointed as Resident Commissioner in Washington D.C. Muñoz Rivera is the father of Puerto Rico's most famous and important statesman, Luis Muñoz Marín. Muñoz Rivera died in San Juan on November 15, 1916.
Francisco Oller (1833-1917) - Born in Bayamón, Puerto Rico on June 17, 1833 and died in San Juan on May 17, 1917. Ever since he was a child he felt a great interest for drawing. He studied pictorial art with great dedication. In France he had famous painters as friends. His famous painting "The Wake," which is part of the University of Puerto Rico Museum collection, is an example of his capability in the art of combining colors. The painting is a study of different types of Puerto Ricans and represents the wake of a child or baquiné, a custom that was used, mainly in the country-side. At the wake the people sang, laughed and ate different sweets while the parents languished. It represents a protest of a custom that he considered without real meaning.
José Feliciano (1945-) - Born blind, on September 10, 1945 in Lares. Jose has been acclaimed by critics throughout the world as "the greatest living guitarist." When he was five, his family emigrated to New York City. José learned to play a concertina at age six, using a handful of records as his teacher. Later on, he taught himself to play the guitar. José has received over forty gold and platinum records, he has won 14 Grammy nominations and six Grammy awards, and has earned countless prestigious awards the world over. José has also been given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. His most notable songs include: "Light my Fire," "Que Sera," "Felíz Navidad," "Rain," "Chico and the Man," "California Dreamin,' "Destiny," "Affirmation," "Ay Cariño," "Ponte a Cantar," "Cuando el Amor se Acaba," and "Porque Te Tengo que Olvidar?", among others.
Tito Puente (1923-2000) - Born Ernest Anthony Puente Jr. in April 20, 1923 in New York City, of Puerto Rican parents. He formed what became the Tito Puente Orchestra and became a leader of the mambo and cha-cha-cha fads in the 1950s and for the next five decades helped define Latin jazz in the United States. He recorded more than 100 albums and won five Grammys in his more than 60 years in the music business. Some recording fused Latin with other musical styles and traditions. He died on June 1st, 2000 in New York.
Rita Moreno (1931 - ) - Born in Humacao, this Puerto Rico actress has secured a distinct place in
movies, notably because of her role in Robert Wise's 1961 film “West Side Story” about Puerto
Ricans in New York, which brought her fame and an Oscar as best supporting actress. She also
appeared in such hits as “Singin' in the Rain” (1956), and Tennessee William's “Summer and
Smoke” (1961), starring Geraldine Page. Her work in television included appearances on “The
Muppet Show” and “The Rockford Files”. Rita became the first woman ever to win all four ot the
biggest awards in show business: an Oscar (movies), a Tony (Broadway theater), an Emmy
(TV), and a Grammy (music).
Ricardo Montalbán - Ricardo Montalbán became Hollywood's original "Latin Lover" in 1947, after
which he broke away from these roles and went on to star in more than 80 films. He is perhaps
best known for playing “Mr. Roarke”, the mysterious host on the TV series “Fantasy Island”,
Montalbán had one of his most notable big screen roles late in his career, as the villainous Khan
in second installment of the popular “Star Trek” series movie, “The Wrath of Khan.”
Edward James Olmos - In a poll conducted in July by Hispanic Trends, U.S. Latinos said Olmos
is the most influential Hispanic American in the nation, putting him ahead of such successful
politicians as former Urban Development Secretary Henry Cisneros and current Energy Secretary
Bill Richardson.
Olmos always carries a sense of commitment with him and strives to set an example by the roles
he chooses to portray. Like so many actors, Olmos did not experience a quick rise to fame.
Olmos played the role of Pachuco in “Zoot Suit” in 1978 when he made only $250 dollars a week.
His list of projects include: “American Me,” an unflinching look at gang and prison life; “The Ballad
of Gregoria Cortez;” “Bladerennner;” “The Burning Season,” about Brazilian political activist
Chisco Mendes; “It Ain't Over,” an anti-domestic violence documentary; “My Family/Mi Familia;”
“Selena;” “Stand and Deliver,” for which he received an Oscar nomination: “Wolfen,” in which he
portrays a Native American, a role he accepted only after getting approval from the Americna
Indian Movement. “The Wonderful Ice Cream Suit;” “Zoot Suit,” both the stage and screen
versions; and his recent involvement with Americanos, a project that has resulted in a book,
documentary, CD, concert and a touring museum exhibit.
Community activism is just a natural extension of his artistic endeavors. "I would hate to look
back on my life and only see myself as a person who made lots of money and was a star and
made “Rambo” and “Terminator” movies,” says Olmos. "I have made my body of work something
that I am proud of and that in 100 years my great-great-grandchildren will go and see my work
and say, "Well,grandpa really did some extraordinarily different kinds of work."
(Source: Hispanic Magazine. September 2000; www.laborinquen.com)
Arturo Alfonso Schomburg (1874 - 1938) - Born on January 24, 1874 in San Juan. Schomburg
was primarily self-taught but attended public schools in Puerto Rico and attended St. Thomas
College in the Virgin Islands. At school in the Virgin Islands he was informed by one of his
teachers that Blacks had no history or accomplishments. Schomburg set out to prove his teacher
wrong. Schomburg began collecting information, documents, memorabillia, and other materials
on African history and culture from all around the world. Soon he became a walking encyclopedia
on Black culture and history.
Schomburg's obsession with making Black history "less a matter of argument and more a matter
of record" and to "restore what slavery took away" makes this self-taught, lonely visionary of
indomitable spirit one whom the world of Black scholarship will forever be immensely indebted.
Schomburg died in 1938. Today the "Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture," located
at 135th Street and Lenox Avenue in Harlem, NY has over 150,000 volumes of Black history, and
nearly five million artifacts, photographs, magazines, and manuscripts from throughout the world
and has become the mecca for anyone needing to document or research Black history.
(Source: El Boricua - www.elboricua.com)
Sandra Cisneros (1954- ) - In 1995 this Mexican American poet and novelist Sandra Cisneros
became the first Hispanic writer to win the prestigious MacArthur Award. Cisneros is a short story
writer, essayist, and poet who has brought Chicana writing into the mainstream of literary
feminism. She is also the first Chicana writer to be published and promoted by mainstream
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
commercial publishing houses. Born on December 20, 1954, in Chicago into a Mexican
American working class family, Cisneros nevertheless benefitted from a private education,
graduating with a B.A. in English from Loyola University (1976) and later with an M.F.A. in
creative writing from the prestigious Iowa Workshop (1978.) Cisneros has written novels, short
stories, essays, etc,. Such as: “The House on Mango Street” (1983)., “Woman Hollering Creek
and Other Stories” (1991). And “My Wicked Wicked Ways.”
Source: Knells, Nicolás. .)
Luis Santeiro (1978 - ) - Cuban born Luis Santeiro became the first Hispanic screenwriter and
producer to work for the most important children's television show in history, “Sesame Street.”
Over the course of his career he has won six Emmy Awards.
(Source: Kanellos, Nicolás. Hispanics First)
Desi Arnaz (1952 - ) - The record breaking sitcom, “I Love Lucy” was the first television comedy
to feature a Hispanic as a star. Eventually lasting nine years, Arnaz and Lucille Ball edified the
“Latin lover” and “dumb blonde” stereotype to capture the attention of television audiences, who
were also engaged by the slightly titillating undercurrent of a mixed marriage between an Anglo
and a Hispanic who played and sang Afro-Cuban music. The formula pairing a While
Anglo-Saxon Protestant (WASP) and a minority or outcast has been duplicated on television to
this date through such programs as “Chico and the Man,” “Who's the Boss,” and “The Nanny.”
Under the direction of famed bandleader and minor movie star Desi Arnaz, Desilu Productions
was formed and grew into a major television studio. “I Love Lucy” can still be seen in
black-and-white reruns in many parts of the United States.
Luis Valdez -El Teatro Campesino - Valdez founded El Teatro Campesino, the first farm-worker
theater, in Delano, California. El Teatro Campesino became the first Mexican American company
(and he the first Mexican American playwright) to win an Obie. Valdez would win two more
Obies, in 1972 and 1978. He was the first Hispanic theatrical director and troupe to win a special
Emmy for the PBS broadcast of the television version of their play “Los Vendidos” (The Sellouts).
(Source: Kanellos, Nicolás. Hispanics First: 500 Years of Extraordianry Achievement)
Oscar "Zeta" Acosta (1936- ) - Born in El Paso, Texas in 1936. After serving in the air force,
Acosta attended college and graduated from law school. His semi-autobiographical novels, The
Autobiography of a Brown Buffalo, and The Revolt of the Cockroach People, are written in a highenergy
style and describe the adventures of a hard-living lawyer and writer seeking an identity
among Chicanos and Anglos. In 1974, during a vacation in Mazatlán, México, Acosta
disappeared. Since then, rumors have circulated that he had worked for the CIA or that perhaps
he was killed because of his political activities on behalf of Chicanos in Los Angeles.
(Source: Abgenbraum, Harold, and Stavans, Ilan. Growing up Latino-Memoirs and Stories-
Reflections on Life in the U.S. (1993)
Politics
Alana Ros-Lehtinen (1952-) - In 1989, for the first time in history, a Cuban American was elected
to the United States Congress. Miami's Alana Ros-Lehtinen was also the first Hispanic woman to
become a congresswoman. She received her bachelors and master's degrees from Florida
International University of Miami and went on to teach in her own private school. In 1982, she
was elected to the Florida legislature as a Republican. She was elected to the Florida state
senate in 1986. (Source: Knells, The Hispanic American Almanac; Telgan and Kamp,
Latinas! /Women of Achievement).
Luis Muñoz Marín (1898-1980) - Born in San Juan on February 18, 1898. Educated at
Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., Muñoz Marín was once known as the New Deal's
Golden Boy and was the founder of Popular Democratic Party (1938.) Although he had started
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
out as a supporter of Puerto Rican independence, he later opted for the commonwealth status as
economically more viable. Muñoz Marín worked closely with the U.S. appointed governor,
Rexford G. Tugwell, to improve housing, farming, and industrial conditions. He campaigned for
land redistribution from large landowners to small farmers and claimed islanders were not yet
ready for economic independence. The slogan "Bread, land, and liberty" won a large following
among the poor. He began "Operation Bootstrap," to attract mainland business investment
through the Puerto Rican Industrial Development Corporation. As Puerto Rico's first elected
governor (1949-65), he helped draft its constitution and in 1952 presided over its attaining the
status of a self - governing Commonwealth. He was reelected as governor three times, Muñoz
Marín served in this post from 1949 to 1965. In 1960 his election was opposed by the Roman
Catholic Church in Puerto Rico, which denounced him for advocating the teaching of birth control;
he was easily reelected despite the opposition. In December, 1963 he received the United States
Presidential Medal of Freedom. He did not run for reelection in 1964, but served once again in
the Senate of Puerto Rico. He died in San Juan on April 30, 1980.
(Source: www.welcome.topuertorico.com)
Edwin Torres (1931-?) - This distinguished jurist and novelist was born to Puerto Rican
immigrants in a New York tenement. After attending Brooklyn College he was eventually
appointed to the New York State Supreme Court, where he made many tough decisions. His
most celebrated case was in 1991 - the Brain Warkins case - in which a young tourist from Utah
was murdered on a New York subway platform. He also wrote such novels as Carlito's Way, Q &
A, and After Hours. (Source: welcome.topuertorico.com)
Olga A. Mendez (1930- ) - Olga A. Mendez became the first Puerto Rican female elected in the
Continental United States. She did so by running in a special election in 1978. Her win was
concretized in a Junior High School where she obtained the Democratic nomination to run in the
special election. She beat out a fellow Democrate, and William Del Toro, Roberto Anazagasti,
and candidate Roberto Sancho. Then District Leader Eddie Suarez swung the decisive county
committee voting block over to Mendez's camp after much political “back room” deals. Senator
Mendez has been in the New York State Senate since her election in 1978. Reelected eight
times, she has managed to accrue even bigger margins of victory. The last person to give the
senator the appearance of a race was the late Richard Irizarry, who ran against Olga in 1992.
She was born in Mayaguez, Puerto Rico and received her B.S. degree from the University of
Puerto Rico. She received her Master Degree in Psychology from the Teacher's College at
Columbia University in 1960 and her Ph.D. in Educational Psychology from Yeshiva University in
1975.
Bill Richardson - The highest-ranking Hispanic in the Clinton administration and one of the most
visible Hispanic politicians in the United States, Secretary of Energy Bill Richardson leads the list
of trendsetters. This native New Mexican has been nominated two times for the Nobel Peace
Prize for his diplomatic troubleshooting while working to free hostages in several countries. His
diplomatic successes did not escape President Clinton's notice when he first appointed him as
United Nations ambassador. The national spotlight is where Richardson excels, which is why he
has served as President Clinton's special envoy on many sensitive diplomatic missions.
(Source: Hispanic Magazine. November 1998)
Henry Cisneros - Henry Cisneros was the first Hispanic mayor of San Antonio. He was later
appointed to President Clinton's cabinet as Secretary of Housing and later became CEO of
Univision, a Spanish-speaking television network.
Raymond Telles - In 1957 Raymond Telles was elected mayor of El Paso, Texas he was the first
Mexican - American to be elected to that office in the city's history. Telles was young and
attractive, had a distinguished career in the Air Force, and had demonstrated administrative
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
ability as the county clerk. Against the opposition of the El Paso Times (newspaper) and most of
the business community, Telles won with the Mexican-American vote in the Lower Valley and the
South Side, which turned out in record numbers, and with the support of the El Paso Herald-Post
(newspaper), champion of the interests of the "Juan Smiths." In the words of attorney George
Rodriguez, what had happened was "a revolution, not an election." It was a blow that the
powerful business community found difficult to accept. "How can we hold our heads up in the
State of Texas," said one businessman, "when we have a Mexican mayor?"
In October 1965, coming in the wake of the Chamizal settlement, officials and businessmen from
El Paso and Juarez seated the Border Cities Association as a forum for discussing border
problems. Then in January 1967 a new official body, the United States Commission for Border
Development and Friendship, was established in Washington, D.C. Raymond Telles, former
mayor of El Paso and former ambassador to Costa Rica, was named chairman. Feuding
between the two groups ensued, with the result that the commission, which apparently never
understood what its mission was, had its funds cut and ceased operations in 1969. Two years
later the Border Cities Association died of inertia. (Source: Timmons, W. H. El Paso - A
Borderlands History.)
César Estrada Chávez - (1965) founded the largest and most important farm worker union in
Delano, California. He led his organization into a strike started by Filipino grape pickers in
Delano, California. Chávez and his United Farm Workers association successfully converted the
strike into one of the most significant movement for social justice for farm workers.
César Chávez was also the Recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Aguila
Azteca. "One of the heroic figures of our time" stated Senator Robert F. Kennedy. President
Clinton observed that recipients of the Presidential Medal of Freedom are from "different eras,
different races, different generations in American history...(yet) what they share in common is an
unusually profound sense of responsibility to improve the lives of their fellow men and women; to
improve the future for our children to embody the best of what we mean by the term "American
citizen." By their remarkable records of service and by their incredible spirit, we have all been
enriched." (Source: Vargas, Jeffery. site 95.5© 1995-1998. March 1998)
Raul Yzaguirre - The National Council of La Raza (NCLR) President, has led the organization for
more than 25 years, and is among the best known and most respected national Hispanic leaders.
He serves on the Boards of such entities as the Enterprise Foundation, National Democratic
Institute, National Hispanic Leadership Agenda, and the National Alliance of Business; he was
the founding Chairperson of the National Neighborhood Coalition; and was the first minority
Chairperson of the Independent Sector. He served as Chairperson of President Clinton's
Advisory Commission on Educational Excellence for Hispanic Americans and is currently the
President of the Mexican and American Solidarity Foundation.
Dolores Huerta - Dolores Huerta is the most prominent Chicana (Mexican American woman)
labor leader in the United States. She is cofounder and first vice president of the United Farm
Workers union. For more than thirty years she has dedicated her life to the struggle for justice
and dignity for migrant farm workers.
As second-in-command to Chávez, Huerta helped shape and guide the union. In 1965, when
Delango grape workers went on strike, she devised the strategy for the strike and led the workers
on the picket lines. Afterward, she became the union's first contract negotiator. In the late
1960's, she directed the grape boycott on the east coast, the primary distribution point for grapes.
Her work there helped bring about a successful grape boycott across the nation. Huerta's style
was forceful and uncompromising. However, she succeeded in bringing together feminists,
community workers, religious groups, Hispanic associations, student protestors, and peace
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
groups. All were united to fight for the rights of migrant farm workers. Victory finally came in
1975 when California Governor Jerry Brown signed the Agricultural Labor Relations Act. This
was the first bill of rights for farm worker ever enacted in America. It legally allowed them to form
a union that could negotiate with farm owners for better wages and working conditions.
(Source: U-X-L. Biographies, U-X-L, 1996)
Sports
Bill Guerin - Latinos have long been involved in sports, especially in soccer, boxing, horse racing,
and baseball. Professional football and basketball have slowly added more and more Latinos to
their rosters. One sport that has always seemed out of reach for Latinos has been hockey. Bill
Guerin was a member of Team USA when it won the 1996 World Cup of Hockey and he currently
plays for the Edmonton Oilers. His mother is from Nicaragua. Being Hispanic was always
important for Guerin. But he downplays his role as someone breaking new ground in the game.
Though he always realized that he "was one of the first Hispanic players, I didn't focus on it. I
was firstly a hockey player." (Source: Hispanic Magazine. May 2000)
Roberto Clemente (1934-1972) - Born in Carolina, Puerto Rico on August 18, 1934. At the age of
eighteen Clemente signed with the Cangrejeros de Santurce and two years later was signed by
the Pittsburgh Pirates where he played for eighteen seasons. Clemente became one of
baseball's most accomplished players and premier defensive outfielder. He was awarded the
Golden Glove. In 1972, after his 3,000th hit in the last game of the 1972 season, Clemente died
in an airplane crash while on a mission to supply earthquake victims in Managua, Nicaragua.
The plane crashed off the coast of Puerto Rico. Clemente was selected for the Hall of Fame in
1973.
Angel Tomás Cordero, Jr. (1942-) - Born in Santurce, Puerto Rico. Considered one of the most
successful jockeys, he won 7,057 races over 22 years before he retired in 1992. Cordero also
won six Triple Crown races, including three Kentucky Derbies.
Juan "Chichi" Rodríguez, (1937 - ) - Born in Río Piedras, Puerto Rico. Rodríguez began as a
caddy at the age of 6, and practiced on tin cans with a homemade golf club fashioned from a
branch of a guava tree. It has been said that Puerto Rican golf was born with "Chichi," who came
to prominence in the 1960s, when he was one of the top ten on the Professional Golf Circuit. In
1967 he published Chichi's Secrets of Power Golf.
Hispanic/Latino(a)Movies
The Ballad of Gregorio Cortez: A Mexican American's ordeal with the Anglo law and justice,
complicated by misunderstanding over a Spanish word for house.
El Norte: A gripping depiction of a Guatemalan refugee from terror in his county and the
excitement and pain in trying to find a new life in the "paradise" of the North.
Old Gringo: Taken from the novel, a view of Mexico's Revolution with its volatile passions and
politics.
Stand and Deliver: A Los Angeles high school calculus teacher, Jaime Escalante, inspires his
barrio teens to strive for excellence. A true story.
The Milagro Beanfield War: Robert Redford's adaptation of John Nichol's novel about northen
New Mexico.
Source: Campbell C. Richard. Two Eagles in the Sun. 1995. p222.
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
Contributions to Deaf Education and Sign Language
Spain was influential in the early education of deaf individuals, due to inheritance laws involving
the first born deaf sons. Monks became the educators for wealthy patrons with deaf sons.
Monks are credited with the origin of the contemporary fingerspelling system used in the United
States. Monks had a manual communication system that they used in monasteries under vows
of silence to educate these deaf heirs. Several heirs demonstrated sufficient education to be able
to inherit property.
Pedro Ponce de Leon - (1520-1584) - A priest who wished to save souls. "Father of Modern
Education of the deaf." He began the first school for deaf children. He was supported by the
Spanish nobility. Source: http://monster.educ.kent.edu/deafed/sld014b.htm 10-12-00.
Juan Pablo Bonet (1579-1620) - He wrote the first treatise on education of the deaf "
Simplification of Sounds and the Art of Teaching the Deaf to Speak." (1620.) He believed that
language and thought were synonymous. He was also an advocate of speech and lipreading.
Source: http//monster.educ.kent.edu/deafed/sldO14b.htm 10-12-00
Jocobo Rodriguez Pereira (1715-1780) - was called. "The greatest teacher of them all."
Source: http://monster.educ.kent.edu/deafed/sldO18b.htm 10-12-00
C. Hispanic/Latino Deaf Role Models
Dr. Robert Davila. Mexican descent. The highest ranking deaf person in the history of the
federal government. Was formerly Assistant Secretary of Education. First deaf Hispanic with a
doctorate degree Syracuse University, New York. Currently he is Vice-President at the National
Technical Institute for the Deaf, Rochester, New York.
Dr. Angel Ramos. Puerto Rican descent. First Puerto Rican to receive a doctorate degree and
the second Hispanic/Latino to do so. First to receive a Fulbright Scholar Award. Currently
Director of Hispanic Deaf Education Project at Lamar University, Beaumont, Texas.
Ramon Rodriguez. Mexican descent. The highest ranking Hispanic currently working in the
Federal Government. Employed by Department of Education, Washington, DC.
Yolanda Rodriguez. Puerto Rican descent. First deaf Hispanic to receive the "Teacher of the
Year" in Puerto Rico or in any other state in the country. Founder of Sordos de Puerto Rico, a
non-profit educational organization. Expected to receive doctorate degree in August, 2001 to
become the first deaf Latina with a doctorate degree.
Lillian Garcia and Ivelisse Velez . Co-chairs of the National Hispanic Conference held in Boston,
MA. Off
Tomas Garcia. Mexican descent. Member of National Hispanic Council and California Latino
Council. Was chair of the California Latino Council conference held in Los Angelas, California
October 2000. On schedule to become the third deaf Hispanic with a doctorate degree.
Currently employed at the California School for the Deaf in Riverside, Californa.
Mark Apodaca. Mexican descent. First deaf Hispanic to be CEO of a major service organization
(Greater Los Angeles Association of the Deaf) and first deaf Hispanic to be an officer of the
National Association of the Deaf (Treasurer).
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
Clara Gantes. Advocate and Deaf Intermediary interpreter in the Miami area.
Ralph Sedano. Mexican descent. First deaf Hispanic to lead an Interpreter Preparation Program.
Currently Director of IPP at Santa Fe Community College in New Mexico.
John Lopez. Mexican descent. First Chairperson of the National Hispanic Council of the Deaf
and Hard of Hearing. Educational Consultant.
V. Cultural Considerations
According to Clifford Geertz, culture is defined as "a web of meaning." Thus we comprehend a
people's identity by looking at the many facets of culture which express that network of meaning.
In the Hispanic culture, the meaning comes through history and language, art and music,
customs, and literature, values and even foods. The reader is cautioned, however, that we can
only talk about Hispanic culture in generalities, since each Spanish-speaking country has its own
unique culture albeit with some general similarities. The following is an attempt to give as broad
a picture of the general Hispanic culture as feasible.
A. Hispanic/Latino Family
"La Familia" (the family) - The family is the primary social unit in Hispanic/Latino culture and gives
meaning to the individual's life. Hispanics take pride in keeping family together, no matter what
occurs. The family includes not only the nuclear family of parents and children but a large
extended family composed of "abuelos" grandparents, "compadres," godparents, "tios" uncles,
"tias" aunts, and "primos" cousins. The family unit strengthens in times of crisis. It is a warm and
nurturing environment. It is solidified by age-old customs and traditions. Ancestors and elderly
persons are persons of worth, honor and respect and give are their rightful place within the family.
It is cultural practice and duty to care for elderly parents. The family residence is the home for
multi-generational members. The number of grandparents, children and married children living
together may affect the family size. There is not an immediate expectation that children will leave
the parent's home after the completion of their high school education. Family size affects sharing
and privacy issues. Many children grow up sharing space and rooms with other family members.
Sleeping in the same bed with a relative is not uncommon.
In the family, ancestors are the link between the past, and are the link to the present and future.
Divorce is frowned upon - there is a strong belief that marriage is for life. Sacrifice to continue in
marriage for the benefit of the family unit is directly and indirectly encouraged by family members.
In some countries there is no legal divorce and men establish new households even though they
may have a legal wife. The complexities in these relationships and the children involved have
been reflected in Hispanic literature, songs, and poetry.
American psychoanalytical studies of Hispanic families have been the product of decades of
stereotypical accounts examining "the problem" of the Hispanic/Latino family. Hispanic/Latino
families have been viewed as authoritarian and macho-dominant, impeding individual
achievement and independence. However, both Hispanic and American cultures have
designated men as the main family wage earners. In both cultures the male family members are
given more privileges than female members. Hispanic/Latino families do not view themselves as
a "tangle of pathology" but as a "close knit" unit protective of their language, culture and values
which are passed down to younger generations.
Gender Roles - There are traditional gender roles and related behaviors for men and women.
This tends to be a stern parental discipline. Hispanics/Latinos follow a generally matriarchal
society. The male may have the "authority" within the family, but the role of the mother is very
powerful. She can be the real power behind the scene, beseeching, evoking trust. There may be
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
more control than is officially recognized. Mothers and women are often active in the roles of
negotiation with educational programs, and agencies, and in community activist activities.
When the family is presented with a person with a disability, there is an acceptance with dignity;
"God gave me this suffering", "pobrecitos," "la sufrida syndrome," or "What sin did I commit that
now my offspring is paying for it?"
Roles of Fathers, Brothers, and Sons - The concept of "Machismo" -protector of the family, is it
reality or myth? It has different meanings both positive and negative within the culture and is not
perceived the same as the outside culture. Machismo was not so much a maladaptive response
which solidified the male dominance, but rather represented an appropriate mechanism to insure
the continuation of Mexican family pride and respect. The husband is the provider of the family.
Roles of Mothers, Sisters, and Daughters - Mothers are seen as the pillars of la familia. They
educate children while the father provides a home. To the Hispanic/Latino woman, the most
important people in her life is the "family." A woman's identity is generally defined through the
relationship, health, and happiness of her family. A woman's upbringing, behavioral traits of the
family and children, demonstrate the woman's role as nurturer and life educator.
A woman's orientation to the United States was formed in the confines of the family, not as a
single independent immigrant alone. Once established in the United States, the family strives to
bring her close relatives to the United States if possible. Hispanic/Latino women rarely ventured
into migration alone; this will occurred only after some personal or family tragedy.
Roles of Children - Children are of utmost importance to the family. They are to be reared and
guided by the mother and financially supported by the father. Children are dependent on parents,
thus the child will have a strong sense of identity and strong family ties. Interdependence rather
than independence is valued There is a hierarchal order among siblings.
Children are taught to request a blessing from parents, godparents, grandparents and older
members of the extended family. The denial of the blessing can indicate disapproval by the one
giving it with a fear of bad luck or misfortune if the blessing is not given. Common blessings are
"Que Dios te bendiga" (may God bless you) or "Que la Virgen te acompañe" (may the Virgin Mary
be with you).
The first sibling is expected to excel. The success of one family member represents the success
of the family as a whole. One member of the family may be put through college through the
efforts of the entire family and then the first to succeed in turn helps with other siblings college
expenses. The support and unity of "la familia" is always there.
When a child is being born, frequently the entire family will gather. When a child is born a
bracelet with colored beads and a small black bead is placed on the child to protect it from evil
spirits. This is proceeded by "Echar agua" similar to baptism but more a precaution to protect the
child from danger "mal ojo" or evil eye. This is also where the child in given his/her Christian
name.
A birthday is traditionally celebrated with a whole extended family gathering often including a
piñata. A piñata is a paper-mache figure filled with candies and other treats, that is broken open
by in a children's game. Las Mañanitas is one of the traditional birthday songs.
A " Quinceañera " is a Hispanic tradition undertaken by the whole family, as the religious and
social debut and formal presentation of a young girl on her 15th or (16th for Puerto Rico) birthday
to her family and the community. The planning and expenses are significant. The young lady is
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
dressed in white which signifies purity, and she may have a male escort and a court of escorts of
14 males and 14 females. There is also a tradition of a young lady trading in her childhood shoes
for a pair of adult shoes, representing her changing role in life.
The Barrio - The Barrio has been seen as a family community haven and cultural preservation
Immigration and migration inevitably disrupted family and community units. But the barrios
provide a strong sense of family, however, enabling Hispanic/Latino immigrants to survive in a
hostile Anglo environment. In the barrios, a sense of strong cultural norms were reinforced which
kept the community familiar to most Hispanic newcomers, providing a haven for Hispanic/Latino
immigrants. Community spaces are often shared, with the porch and street becoming extended
community and living spaces in urban areas stores (called "bodegas") that sell groceries. These
"bodegas" sometimes establish "accounts" for residents when trust is earned. The barrio insured
the continuation of their distinctive culture." (Source: Common Knowledge; Sanchez, George.
Becoming Mexican American)
B. Spanish Language
The Spanish language and the Roman Catholic religion are among the oldest and most important
cultural bonds that unite Hispanics. During Spain's colonial period, which lasted from the 1500's
to the 1800's, Spanish missionaries and landowners spread their language and religion
throughout the areas they controlled. As a result, most Hispanic Americans can speak Spanish,
and a large majority are Roman Catholics.
Technically speaking, the Spanish language is called Castellano. Castillian Spanish is the
Spanish that is spoken in Spain and Venezuela. The Swedish philologist, F. Wullf, called
Spanish "the most sonorous, harmonious, elegant, and expressive of all the Romance
languages." French grammarian L. Malefille declared that Italian kept Latin's sweetness, but
Spanish maintained its nerve. Spanish has even been termed "manly." That is to say, French is
spoken from the mouth, Italian from the throat, but Spanish from the thoracic cavity, the chest.
Italian is linked with vehemence. French with refinement, and Spanish with dignity and even
martial manliness!
There are other variations of Spanish that are spoken in Puerto Rico, Mexico, Guatemala and
other countries. Hispanics in the United States speak a variety of Spanish dialects - with distinct
pronunciation, vocabulary, colloquial expressions, and slang - depending on their country or
region of origin, the speakers of one dialect can usually understand the speakers of another with
no difficulty.
Although some Hispanic Americans do not use Spanish at all, most continue to speak Spanish in
their homes and teach the language to their children. Many adult immigrants have difficulty
learning English, but their children usually grow up speaking both Spanish and English.
Accent - Many individuals who acquire a second language past early childhood tend to retain the
accent influence of the mother tongue into the second language. Everyone has an "accent."
Accents vary widely in Spanish speakers as they do in English speakers (British, New York or
Australian English accents). Individuals can often easily recognize someone from Cuba, Puerto
Rico or Columbia by their native accents. Accent is not an indication of fluency or comprehension
of the second language. An accent reveals a person to be more than monolingual and is a
source of uniqueness and pride. Unfortunately many individuals use color or skin, and accents
as a basis for discrimination and prejudicial treatment. (Source: Cultural backgrounds of
Hispanic Americans; Campbell, Richard C. Two Eagles in the Sun)
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
C. General Cultural Characteristics
The Mañana Syndrome - Hispanics live in the now. Hispanics accept the reality of life's
limitations, that not everything can be accomplished in one day or even in a lifetime - "que será,
será " (what will be, will be). Time is to be enjoyed along with the day to day details of life. The
tendency to live for today is prevalent.
Punctuality - In general, Hispanics do not want to be the first to arrive or the last to leave as it is
considered improper or may be rude. In general, to be "late" is the norm. This has given rise to
the term "Mexican time" - or arriving late. However, punctuality is taken seriously in work settings
and those requiring practical ahead of time planning.
Social gatherings are very flexible or less punctual, some events often start later for evening
activities than the stated "invitation" clock time
Business meetings start first with family centered discussions to establish trust.
"Mi casa es su casa". - "You're always welcome in my home" is not to be taken literally - social
graces and invitations should still be observed.
Social Dining - Always better to accept hospitality as rejection may be considered insulting.
Guests may arrive up to an hour "late" varies on one's upbringing. An empty plate means you're
still hungry. In a family situation, the hostess will continue filling the plate.
Rejections - Reject food or invitations with caution. Hispanics love to share their traditional food
dishes and are delighted when the other person accepts their dishes or invitation to an event.
This gives Hispanics a sense that the other person truly accepts them for who they truly are and
are willing to share cultural traditions.
Family Rejections - This results in highly emotional sentimental hurt. Hurt feelings are often not
voiced and are kept to oneself. It may take years before someone knows that he/she has
offended a family member but once it is known an apology or family reconciliation is done.
Pregnancy - There is an assumption of "virginity" among females, and pregnancy out of wedlock
is not accepted.
Cognitive and cultural thinking styles - The Hispanic/Latino cognitive cultural style is
characterized by global and conceptual; facts are combined with feeling. Cooperative learning -
group is valued over individual work.
Cultural work and problem solving approaches - Work styles are role oriented. Workers are
motivated by loyalty and respect teamwork. It is critical to establish personal relationships before
business, with emphasis on present day-to-day achievement. The attitude of "lo que será, será"
does not apply to business.
Decision-making, problem solving - Family decision making is done by the head of household.
Problems are sometimes solved by setting a "Family Meeting." Problem solving at work is
confronted by listening to the "other side of the story" first. Strong teamwork, support and
feedback are important. Hispanics tend to be "simpaticos/as" (sympathetic) and will not publicly
argue with another person.
Social Vocabulary - Use of formal titles indicates that respect is being addressed. "Usted" vs "Tú"
- Use of the formal "Usted" (you) indicates that respect is being addressed. "Tú" (you) is used
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
informally to show friendship. Follow the lead of the native speakers; the "Tú" form is used more
loosely by Latin and South Americans and Caribbeans; while Mexicans tend to use this term
more and will invite you to address them informally using the word "Tú" (such as peers
addressing each other in a conversational setting).
Señorita - a woman, who is not married but is single.
Señora - a married woman
Joven - a young single man
Jovencita - a young single woman
Señor - a man
Caballero - a gentleman
Simpatico/a - someone with a pleasant character
Don/Doña (with first names only) - a title of respect for older people in authority; to use Don
and Doña with last names is meant to be insulting
Maestro(a) - for teachers of self-learning trades.
Introductions and Farewells - Introduce everyone in the room when a stranger comes in and
when leaving shake hands. Introduce people based on hierarchy starting with older persons,
grandparents, and professionals.
Importance of Personal Contact - The preference is for face-to-face interactions versus written
communication. There is a preference for in-person confrontation rather than by telephone or
even by appointments or information. In the Deaf Hispanic Community this can be even more
apparent since use of telephone involving language issues is more complex. Community
members will "show up" for information and assistance once trust is established.
Abrazo - The abrazo" is a ritual greeting whether or not a conversation starts. The traditional
courtesies are exchanged, Good Morning! "Buenos Dias," God Bless You, "Dios los bendiga" and
With your permission, "con su permiso" A common daily recitation for children is, Mommy - my
queen, "mamíta -mí reina; Daddy - my king, “papíto- mí rey."
Social Expressions and Questions - Questions regarding the health and well being of family is
part of the culture and signifies courteousness. These questions may seem "personal" to non-
Hispanics, but it is simply a way of expressing genuine concern and courtesy in the Hispanic
community. (Source: Campbell, Richard C. Two Eagles in the Sun; Common Knowledge)
Nick Names-Diminutive Names - Hispanics love to give nicknames or change a name to
diminutive form to express affection; for example, “Pepe” to “Pepito.” .
Husband/Wife Affection Nicknames
Mi Vieja/(Mi Viejo) My Old Woman (My Old Man)
Mi Reina (Mi Rey) My Queen (My King)
Mi Costilla My Better Half
Mi Cielo My Sky
Mi Flaco (a) My Twiggy
Marriage - Marriage is a contract for life - divorce is frowned upon. The wedding is performed in a
church. During the wedding ceremony the father presents his daughter (the bride) to her new
husband with a traditional wedding blessing. Many brides still veil their faces as a sign of
virginity. Guests are invited to a reception with a banquet set up of the traditional food of the
specific Hispanic/Latino cultural group. During the reception the father of the bride has the first
dance with the bride and then presents her to her new husband. There is a tradition of a "Dollar
Dance" in which people dance with the bride and groom pinning, money to their clothing as a gift
and sign of prosperity and good luck. Wedding Vocabulary:
Boda (wedding)
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
Pidiendo la mano de la novia - the engagement or formal requesting of the bride’s to be hand
in marriage is formally expected from the fiancé.
Padrinos de Ramo: the couple that provides the bride's bouquet
Padrinos de Lazo: the couple that carries the symbolic rosary rope, it is placed by the
padrinos around the couple to point them toward marital unity and to suggest that regularly
praying the rosary together will strengthen their relationship.
Padrinos de Arras: the couple that carry the 13 silver or gold coins in a small box or basket
(the groom's first gift to his bride which is placed in her hands during the ceremony.
Los Pajes: Two children that carry the cojines (kneeling cushions) for the bride and groom to
kneel during the wedding services.
El Abrazo (Hug) and El Beso (Kiss) - In general, touching shows affection. Children greet adults
with a handshake. Men greet women with a "beso" on the cheek. Men greet other men with an
"abrazo" (hug) and a couple of pats on the back.
Source:www.literacynet.org/lp/perspectives/deepcult.html
Non-Manual Behavior Such as Proximity and Eye Contact - Hispanics stand closer to each other
approximately 18 inches, while the dominant culture tends to maintain a distance of 36-48 inches.
Lowering of head/eyes signifies respect, not humiliation. Hands crossed on chest - tends to show
boredom. Tapping fingers and nail biting displays nervousness or uneasiness. When being
reprimanded Hispanics tend not to talk back, but to remain silent. Silence is preferred over being
mocked due to bad English. (Source: www.literacynet.org)
Culturally Appropriate Attire - There is sometimes a "stereotype" of all Hispanics/Latinos wearing
peasant clothing of sombreros and a poncho. In reality, there is great variation in the regional
clothing of Spanish-speaking people. Their cultural attire are proudly displayed in the beautiful
pageants, traditions and dances of the various countries. However, in daily life in the United
States, most individuals follow the current fashions.
There is a general preference in Hispanic and Latino cultures for beauty expressed in bright
beautiful colors and fashions. Women may dress in brighter colors with jewelry accents to
complement their personal sense of color or style. For weddings, and other party or social events
dresses may be very elaborate. Clothes may accentuate a woman's figure. Many women wear
brighter makeup and jewelry.
Men generally follow business attire with some adaptations of a shirt called a "guayabera" which
is a formal shirt that does not require a tie for hot climates. Other men dress according to their
work requirements. Some individuals, due to their economic status, may be wearing clothing
that is shared within the family.
D. Foods
A list of all the varied foods of the almost 20 Spanish-speaking countries is impossible. For
example, Mexican food and Puerto Rico food are very different. Mexicans love jalapeños and
drink margaritas - Puerto Ricans love fried foods and drink piña coladas. Although there are
some similar foods like pasteles and flan, for the most part they are different. Since almost three
out of every four Hispanics/Latinos are from Mexico, here is some information most typical of
Mexican culture:
Foods: "Panza llena, corazoΩ contento" (Full stomach, contented heart).
Names of foods originated in the Indian cultures of Mexico - aguacate, calabaza, chile....
Spices: Spices used in Mexican-American cooking include - comino (cumin), cilantro (corander),
cinnamon, cloves, oregano, garlic, onions, and chile helps give a distinctive taste to the cuisine.
Arroz con pollo (chicken with rice)
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
Burritos: (flour tortilla wrapped with meat, cheese, chili relleno, or what one desires to add.)
Bolillos or Francesitos: French bread loaves, light and fluffy in the inside and crisp crust on
the outside
Capirotada: a holiday bread pudding with sugar, cinnamon, raisins, nuts, pecans and grated
cheese. Associated with Lent.
Menudo: tripe chopped and cooked with posole (hominy, pork, and chile).
Mole: chicken or beef pieces in a luscious chocolate sauce.
Panaderia: "Mexican Bakery." There are over three hundred kinds of pan dulce (sweet
bread).
Examples of pan dulce are:
Bizcochos: small cinnamon and anise cookies ( mostly used at wedding events).
Marranitos: pig shaped, ginger cookies
Sapos: pudding-filled donuts with chocolate frosting
Pan de huevo: round flat bread with colored, flavored toppings
Campechanas: sugar glazed bread filled with jelly
Source: Campbell, R. C. (1995). Two Eagles in the Sun. P.45,46,54.
E. Music/Dance
Music and dance are an integral part of Hispanic culture. Children, even deaf children, grow up
dancing from the time they are able to walk. Each country has its unique music and dance. For
example, in Mexico, the Mariachis are the most universally recognized form of traditional Mexican
music. The word "Mariachis" is from the Náhuatl language. It meant "tree" at first, later "a
wooden floor" for dancing. Instruments include the drums, bone flutes, guitar, and violin. In the
1500's the guitarilla (small four string guitar) was added, later the guitarrón (six-string based
guitar). One of many theories of the story of the Mariachis suggests that it actually began near
Guadalajara, in the town of Cocula.
In the 1930's the Mariachis took on a more commercial form. Emilio Azcárraga Vidurreta, director
of a radio station thought the folk Mariachi sounded too thin for radio, omitted the harp, and
added the trumpet. The group grew to twelve musicians. Today's Mariachis wear attire that was
developed in the 40's, with charro jacket, white shirt, ruffled tie, wide sombrero, and boots.
Frequently, Mariachi musicians cannot read music. They learn arrangements by ear and pass
along this skill unchanged to the younger generation. (Source: Campbell, R. C. (1995) Two
Eagles in the Sun.)
F. Traditional Religious Practice and Medical Views
Spiritual Beliefs and Religions - It is a myth that all Hispanics are Catholic. Many
Hispanics/Latinos follow other religions including but not limited to Baptist, Jehovah Witnesses,
Mormon, Evangelical, Jewish, and Moslem. Although there are many religious traditions and
spiritual practices of Hispanic/Latino peoples, many Hispanics/Latinos follow Catholic traditions.
The Spanish Conquistadors of the "New World" first introduced the Catholic religion. The
indigenous peoples of the "New World" were often forced to convert to this new religion. Many
cultures incorporated both the practices of the Catholic church while retaining the indigenous
belief systems, medical practices and symbols. This forms the basis for a complex set of
religious beliefs and practices including but not limited to "curanderismo" and "Santeria". The
concept of "el alma" (the soul) is common to most Hispanics/Latinos and, although based on the
Catholic church's belief in an eternal soul, is also built upon the spiritual beliefs of indigenous
peoples.
It is believed that the Virgin Mary has made several appearances in Mexico. She is revered
throughout most of the Hispanic world as the beloved mother and intercessor to God. In Mexico,
she appeared at Mount Tepeyac to the ordinary Indian, Juan Diego, an Aztec, who was
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
converted to Christianity on December 9, 1531. Her image was imprinted on his tilma (poncho).
This image now hangs in the Cathedral built on the hill. The apparition of Our Lady of
Guadalupe represents the essence of Mexico - the fusion of two cultures, Catholic Spain and
indigenous Mexico. On December 12 the celebration of our Lady of Guadalupe is celebrated. It
is traditionally celebrated with a mass, mañanitas and matachines dancers (matachines is a
dance dedicated to Our Lady of Guadalupe.). The Virgin Mary is seen as the "Queen of Mexico"
and "Empress of the Americas." Source: www.folklorico.com.
Saints - The role of saints in Hispanic/Latino cultures is widespread. Saints often are associated
as specific intercessors between the individual and God. These saints are often "patron" saints.
It is traditional for many Hispanics to be named after both Mary and a saint. An individual will
often celebrate both their birthday and their namesake's feast day. For example, a woman
named Maria Isabel, would celebrate the day of Santa Isabel (Saint Isabel) - July 8th.
La Promesa - When an intercession is made on behalf of a family member or another who is sick
or in need of assistance, a "promise" is made to God, Mary or a saint. This traditionally includes
prayers, a pilgrimage, or other promises.
Santeria - This is a complex Caribbean blending of Catholic saints and African deities. It is
similar to Voodoo. Like Voodoo, Santeria came to the Americas with the millions of Black slaves
from West Africa, principally from the Yoruban tribes along the Niger River. Forced to convert to
Catholicism, the slaves continued their religion in secret, passing along the ancient traditions
either orally or in handwritten notebooks called “liretas.” Gradually, the Yorubans began to see
what they believed were the incarnations of their gods into the Catholic saints and syncretized the
two faiths. Soon the Spanish and Portuguese slaves' masters became interested in the Yoruban
magic and began practicing Santeria themselves. Today, any large city with a large Hispanic
population has many Santeros as well as devoted Catholics because many practice both religions
or a combination. New York, Miami, Los Angeles and the countries of Cuba and Jamaica are
Santeria strong holds. Brazilians practice it under such names as Candomble, Umbanda, and
Quimbanda.
Death and Funerals - Death is a time to reminisce with a religious celebration that includes music
and a family reunion. Many Hispanics visit their loved one’s graves on November 2nd and bring
to the grave site a favorite dish or drink of the deceased. This ritual is significant to the Hispanic
populations because they believe they feel the spirit of their love ones while visiting. They sing,
pray, and just have the sense of "una corozonada" - a feeling of peace with their love ones.
Practices differ depending on the country of origin and religious practice of the individual or
family. Events began with the rosary (meaning roses), signifying the flower of new life from the
seed of the dead life. Funeral visitations are scheduled. Black attire is the color of mourning,
however attendants generally wear somber attire.
Children who die are considered saints and angels and they are immediately taken to heaven. In
some countries in the rural areas, there may be the passing around of the remains of the child
who is dressed in white to signify happiness and that he/she is in heaven. The following are
various traditions that occur around deaths and funerals:
The "Esquelas" (obituaries) - is the printed name and announcement of the deceased's life
history with names of their extended family members. Church services are held and later the
clergy accompany the deceased's family to the "Campo santo" or "holy fields," (cemetery).
Songs or music may be played at the grave site.
“El Pesame" (condolences) - Family members and friends visit the home of the deceased to offer
condolences, reminisce, and laugh and weep for the deceased. Alcohol consumption is
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
common. Home-made food is brought by friends and family to share all day.
The "Novena” is a religious practice offering of nine nights of saying the rosary to ensure that the
deceased's soul will rest in peace and attain salvation. It is also an assurance that the deceased
will not come back and haunt the survivors. A picture of the deceased is displayed and a crystal
glass of water is placed beside the picture to signify that his or her soul is present at the Novena.
Visitation of the grave site - includes the bringing of flowers or the deceased's favorite dish and
beverage, and is presented at the tombstone. It is the practice of most Hispanic/Latino countries
to visit the grave site in times of hardship to ask for the deceased parents for prayer and
assistance. Sometimes families gather yearly and sit around the grave site to remember the
good times.
Día de los Muertos ( the day of the dead is November 2nd ) - In Hispanic/Latino cultures there is a
continuum between the dead and the living. The Day of the Dead is celebrated to remind the
living of the ultimate fate of all humans. It is demonstrated in the humorous or macabre humor of
skeletons, skulls in the shape of candies. The graves of the communities are cleaned, and
decorated with yellow chrysanthemums. In the home or in public spaces, elaborate altars are
constructed to remember individuals who have died. The altar construction include flowers, food,
beverages and other colorful and favorite items of the deceased. The community visits the
cemetery and brings food, music and spends the night in celebration and communication with the
souls of the departed.
Bautismo (baptism) - A child's "Bautismo" is one of the seven religious sacraments and is
celebrated for a newborn child being initiated into the spiritual community of the Catholic Church.
The role of the "compadrazgo" or godparents involves the duty of raising the child if the child's
parents were to die. This creates an extended family bond. The "La Pastilla" “el bolo” it is known
as the throwing of coins to the neighborhood children as a sign of prosperity and goodwill for the
baptized child. After the baptism, the family celebrates with a meal, showering gifts and blessings
on the newly baptized child.
G. Views of Western Medical Practices vs Traditional Medicine
Hispanics/Latinos may have had negative experiences with Western medical practices as a result
of cultural conflicts. If the practitioner is not sensitive, the patient may feel he/she is seen as a
"dollars and cents" or profit motive. There may be suspicion of prescribed medications. It is not
uncommon for patients to use a prescribed medicine along with traditional herbs and processes
for healing. Some patients may stop taking the medication when they "feel" better; some may not
have enough money to purchase the entire prescription and may take a portion of the medication;
some patients are from countries, such as Mexico, where prescriptions are not required and or
may share or self-medicate.
Traditional Medicine - There are numerous complex traditional medical beliefs, practices and
practitioners:
Curanderismo - This includes an interrelationship between herbal, physical and religious prayers
to serve and cure the people by experienced curanderos/as. There are other individuals who are
seen as "charlatans" charging the patients and involving themselves in the removal of "curses."
Superstitions - Some practices have "superstitions" as in any culture and involve folk cures and
preventions for a variety of disabilities and physical conditions from "cleft palate" to the cure of
hiccups," or earaches.
Yerbas (herbs) - Herbal remedies are used for different ailments, such as Manzanilla for colics,
and insomnia; teaspoonful of sugar with water for Hiccups.
"Hot" remedy for illnesses that are “hot” need to be treated by the "cold" remedy to restore
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
balance. For example tonsillitis is a "hot" illness that would be treated with cold tomatoes.
"Cold Remedy," remedy for illnesses that are "cold" need to be treated with a "hot" remedy to
restore balance. For example respiratory infection is a "cold" illness that needs to be cured with a
"hot" remedy such as cinnamon, chicken soup. etc. (Source: Handout: Cross-Cultural Concepts
of Health and Disease-Huff, Robert)
Hispanic or Latino View of "Disability" - Disabled family member is cared for or given more
attention as it is required. Children are taught to assist a disabled family member with respect. In
the absence of parents, the eldest female becomes the main caretaker - the disabled/elder is
never taken to a foster home.
VI Contemporary Issues
A. Bilingualism and the English - Only Debate
Many Hispanics feel oppressed by the standard curriculum in schools that continues to teach a
European-based history and enforce the "English - Only" philosophy. Says Edward James
Olmos, "How can children of color gain a feeling of sense, of self-worth, self-esteem, and
self-respect by citing a European-based history? Yet nothing is being done about changing it
supporters of the English-Only movement have put together two of the most destructive words in
the last century. Nothing has destroyed our human survival more than those two words put
together English - Only. They could have said English-First, English-Plus, whatever, but English
Only? The person who thought that up should know that what they have done is destroy the very
cultural dynamic that makes this country the finest country in the world!" (Source: Hispanic
Magazine. September 2000).
The United States is one of only three countries in the world that is monolingual. The vast
majority of people on Earth speak two or more languages. While English is still the most
important language of business and technology worldwide, there is a whole immense region
outside and a large population inside the United States where markets, contact, and opportunities
are mainly in Spanish. Being able to speak Spanish AND English is a definite plus in the
business world. However, many Anglo writers and politicians, including some Hispanics
themselves, promote English - Only because they blame Spanish - speakers use of Spanish as
the reason they are unable to learn English. Their arguments fly in the face of the under
education of Hispanic children who have been traditionally taught using the English - Only
philosophy and the success of bilingual schools where Hispanic children do as well, or better,
than their Anglo counterparts. For example, one of the top ten schools in Texas is 85% Hispanic
and underprivileged, and yet, almost 90% of their students pass the state tests for reading,
writing, and math - all in English. Not surprisingly, they use bilingual education. All Spanish
speaking students are not only fluent in Spanish but English as well.
Whether bilingual education is good pedagogically obviously depends on how well it is done. It
may help a child comprehend first lessons and better equip him or her for adult life with wider
resources of a bilingual culture. Or, if done clumsily or with a narrow ideological agenda, it may
delay the child's learning or turn him or her off from school - although culturally insensitive
monolingual schooling is even more likely to do that. If done well, such programs are potentially
beneficial to all since there can be no doubt that knowing two or more languages is better than
knowing only one.
Most Hispanics/Latinos who are fluent in their native language can express themselves efficiently
on personal, business, and other matters. Regardless of the daily encounters to struggle to
master the English language, Hispanics/Latinos take pride in being bilingual and not only
monolingual in Spanish. Their fluency in both English and Spanish is dependent upon their
generational and educational experiences in the United States and socio-economic background.
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
For those Hispanics who do not speak Spanish, asking "You don't speak Spanish?" may elicit a
strong emotional response. Their lack of mastery of the Spanish language may have been a
result of generational, educational, geographical or other language learning decisions by the
family or educational policies. These individuals may be "sensitive" over the loss of their bilingual
abilities or "proud" of their families assimilation into the United States culture.
Probably the major reason that many Anglos support the English - Only philosophy is that they
also fear that the use of Spanish and bilingual education will foment ethnic separatism and
"Balkanize" this country - an emotional argument at best. (NOTE: There is a wealth of
information available on this issue on the web and in the research literature.)
B. Affirmative - Action
Action - Affirmative action has opened the door of opportunity for many minorities, including
Hispanics. Miami lawyer Osvaldo Soto, president of the Spanish American League Against
Discrimination (SALAD) has said "It is a great idea which has not only improved conditions for
minorities but also made up for some of the inequities that were committed in the past against
minorities.” Thanks to affirmative action, Soto explained, minority businesses have gained
access to government contracts that would have otherwise eluded them, women have been given
opportunities in business that in the past would have been reserved for men, and many Hispanics
have been able to bid and obtain contracts that for years were well beyond their grasp. "We've
made some huge strides, but there is still much more ground to cover." Soto said. He also
pointed out that in a recent article, the number Hispanic executives in the United States was
reported at about 3 percent, when Hispanics make up nearly 13 percent of the country's
population. (Source: Hispanic Magazine. November 1999)
C. Immigration
Family migration historically was often and continues to be "torturous" because Hispanic/Latino
immigrants are seen as inferior. Fathers and mothers sacrificed time away from raising their own
children, to immigrate to work as day laborers and maids in the United States, to earn money and
send it back to their home country and their needy family and children. Circular migration back
and forth to their home country was the norm. This movement allowed family members to reunite
after a long period of separation. In 1921, United States immigration policies made circular
migration more difficult. This caused great hardship for family members to be separated for years
without communication. The immigrants needed to make a decision to reorient themselves to the
experience of working and living in the United States without contact with their families. These
Immigrants sacrificed much leaving the older generation behind, but they never lost the
acknowledgment of their parents. Remaining in the United States caused great hardships, but
Mexicans and other Hispanic/Latino immigrant groups were willing to do so to better their
children's future.
For undocumented aliens working in the United States, there is always fear of "La Migra"
(immigration officers) and potential for serious exploitation. Some people believe that it is better
to live in the United States and be exploited than to live in their home country. Despite various
amnesty programs throughout the years, some families may still have elderly or other
undocumented relatives living at home who did not understand and take advantage of the various
amnesty and governmental programs. These individuals are always fearful that the relatives will
be deported back to a country without family support or medical care.
(Source: Sanchez, G. J. Becoming Mexican American-Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano
Los Angeles.)
D. Health Issues
According to Guadalupe Silva, health care problems are most serious among low-income women
in the barrios, single heads of households in their mid-thirties, with small children. They live in
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
rundown housing or in tiny apartments without running water or heat. They may take herbal
medicines or buy medicines across the border where no prescription is necessary. Martha
Quiroga, an El Paso public health official, says that a large number of Hispanic women avoid pap
smears because they fear it will cause an abortion. Among 450 poor Hispanic women in El Paso,
18 percent had never had a pap smear, 26 percent had not had a breast exam, and 65 percent
had never had a mamogram. According to former Surgeon General Antonia Novella, their is
fatalism in the Hispanic/Latino culture, "You're born, you die, and that's life." There is a sort of
fatalism or "el destino de cada uno" (each person's destiny) which is a belief that an individual
has little control over personal health.
The problem of health care is actually a crisis. Here are some basic facts:
More Hispanics lack health insurance than any other minority group (nearly 37 percent for
Mexican Americans, 19.7 percent for African Americans and 20.3 persent Cuban Americans, 15.5
percent for Puerto Ricans, and 10.2 percent for non-Hispanic Whites.) Diabetes runs twice as
high than among non-Hispanics whites, plus kidney failure because of diabetes. Among those in
the 45-74 age range, 25 percent of Mexican and Puerto Rican Hispanics have diabetes, but only
16 percent of Cuban Hispanics (vs. 12- 13 percent of non Hispanic whites).
Lead poisoning and measles are higher among Hispanic children, as are the injuries and violent
death.
Cancer, tuberculosis (four times higher than in the general population), alcoholism, and cirrhosis
rates are higher. El Paso has the nation's highest increase in breast cancer among Hispanic
women.
Heart disease is the leading killer among Hispanics. Paradoxically, Hispanic mortality rates from
respiratory disease, cancer, and heart disease are 25-33 percent lower than rates for
non-Hispanics white Americans.
Sexually transmitted diseases are growing alarmingly. Texas ranks second ranks second in the
nation for syphilis cases, much of this in the Hispanic community. With 8 percent of the United
States population, Hispanics have 16 percent of persons with the HIV virus, and 21 percent of
women with AIDS. Among Latinas ages 15-44, the abortion rate is 42.6 percent per 1,000
compared to 26.6 per 1,000 in the rest of the population, according to the El Paso Times.
Language Complicates Health Issues
It is well-known that many health care professionals speak English and not Spanish. Sick
patients are expected to know English if they want to be helped. It takes no imagination to
visualize the frustration in doctors' offices and clinics. Moreover, many health providers who
speak academic or scientific Spanish may not know barrio Spanish. Margarita Kay from the
University of Arizona has studied this problem and gives the example of a doctor who would refer
to enlarged tonsils as amígdala, but a Chicano would use anginas and be surprised to find the
doctor examining him or her for chest pains. In one school of nursing, 90 percent of the students
wanted to learn medical Spanish, but the Spanish department refused to teach anything other
than "Peninsular" Spanish. (Source: Campbell, R. C. Two Eagles in the Sun.)
E. Hispanic/Latino Political Trends
More Latino candidates than ever are running for office, seeking to serve in political jobs that
range from seats on the Cook County, Illinois school board to seats in the United States
Congress. Armed with new political savvy and helped by changing demographics, many will beat
their opponents especially those who can succeed in raising campaign cash. The growing
number of Latino political candidates reflects the growth of the Hispanic community in the United
States. But it's also an indication of something more. Every year, there are more Latinos who
are qualified, and ready, for the rough and tumble of United States political arena. As a
community, Hispanics are maturing politically and are ready to lead, even if Latinos continue to
be under-represented in American politics. The Tomás Rivera Policy Institute tracks the numbers
of Latino political candidates each year. Its president, Harry Pachón, says the new "gosh-darned
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
dynamism" of a growing Hispanic electorate, which is expected to top five million voters this year,
has contributed to the record number of Latinos seeking public office in November. But he also
says the "trend line had been upwards" since the early 1980's. "There are more and more
second-generation Latinos being socialized and running for political office," says Harry Pachón
of the Thomás River Policy Institute. (Source: Hispanic Magazine. September 2000)
F. Education
Hispanics/Latinos’ educational achievements fall far behind those of the general population. The
United States Census website has complete current information on the educational achievements
of Hispanic children, including dropout rate, graduation rate, etc. You will find, however, that like
each Spanish-speaking country is different, their educational achievements in the United States
are also different. Cubans tend to be the most educated, followed by Puerto Ricans while those
of Mexican descend tend to be the least educated.
The poor educational achievements of Hispanic children carry over to deaf children as well. In
the United States, Hispanic deaf children lag behind their peers in academic achievement. They
do not attend college in the same percentages as non-Hispanic White deaf students. There are
only two known doctoral graduates in the United States - Dr. Robert Davila and Dr. Angel Ramos.
Only 10% of Hispanic Deaf children aged 17-21 read at the 5th grade reading level and only 17%
attend a post-secondary school. The majority of Hispanic Deaf attend a two-year secondary
education or vocational training programs.
In other countries, deaf education has been primarily private and oral. Only deaf children born to
families with sufficient financial resources may be educated. Many deaf children have not had
access to an education geared for deaf children. There are indigenous signing systems that have
been identified in most countries. The Deaf Community operating through church and
missionary programs or through informal networks often provide access to a signed language to
older children and adults. Most countries outside of the United States do not have interpreter
training or access to professional sign language interpreters. Most interpreters are family,
friends, and church members. This is similar to the history of the United States prior to the
1960's. Many Deaf individuals and their families have immigrated into the United States to
access a better education. Often their education process begins later in life with adult literacy
classes. Several large metropolitan communities have developed programs that have started to
address these needs, such as Los Angeles, El Paso, Chicago, Boston, and New York City to list
a few known locations.
(Source: Cohen, 1993; Ramos, 1997)
VII. Hispanic/Latino Holidays and Traditional Events
Many traditional celebrations and fiestas often revolve around a blending of religious and social
significance. The preparation and sharing of cultural foods are often a significant component,
along with the regional songs, dances, and musical instruments. Again, each Spanish-speaking
country has it’s own unique holidays and traditional events. Here are a few:
Parrandas - is Christmas caroling Puerto Rican style. Friends gather late in the evening to go
from one house to the next singing traditional songs. The parranderos must surprise the
unsuspecting friends and wake them with their music. The home owner has already given
plenty of "hints" that he is prepared to receive a parranda. The parranderos gather outside the
front door and at a signal, the musicians play and the rest sing. At each house they stop for a
while and party, then they go to the next house. Often the members of the house join the
parranda and it grows in numbers during the evening. Asalto or trulla are other words for
parranda. Aguinaldos is what Puerto Ricans call their Christmas songs. Some of the songs are
very religious and these are called villancicos. Some have a criollo flavor and they are called
décimas navideñas. The rest are either traditional aguinaldos or popular Christmas songs.
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
Misa de Aguinaldo is a Catholic Mass that is almost completely a song service. Aguinaldos are
sung and the musical instruments used are the traditional cuatro (Puerto Rican guitar), guitars,
güiros, and maracas. Misas de Aguinaldo are held for nine consecutive days ending on the day
before Christmas Eve. The mass is held at dawn (usually at 6AM).
Nochebuena is Christmas Eve (December 24th). In Puerto Rico, as well as other Latin American
countries, the big holiday celebration is held on Nochebuena. Family and friends get together for
festivities and traditional foods of lechón asado and pasteles. The parties often last till morning.
On Christmas Day people rest from Nochebuena.
Traditional Holiday Foods - The main dish is usually roast pork served along with arroz con
gandules, plátanos, and pasteles. Pasteles are made using mashed green bananas. The dough
is filled with meat and it is wrapped in the leaves of the banana tree. Holiday desserts include
"arroz con leche," (rice cooked with spices, sugar, milk, and coconut milk) and "tembleque" (a
custard made with cornstarch, sugar, and coconut milk). They are eaten cold, when its
consistency becomes solid. The nougat, imported from Spain, is another popular sweet dish
during the holidays. Coquito is the traditional holiday beverage and is made using coconut milk
and rum. A roast pig on a spit, called "lechón asado," is a traditional day long event that can be
done anytime during the Christmas holidays.
Misa de Gallo is a Misa de Aguinaldo held at midnight on Christmas Eve. It is a very solemn but
festive mass often including candles. Many families attend this mass as a tradition.
Navidad is Christmas Day (December 25th). Most modern Puerto Rican families celebrate with
Santa on this day. Homes are decorated much like in the mainland but they include a lot of palm
trees and their branches. Families set up "nacimientos" or "pesebres" (mangers). The Three
Wise Men or Los Reyes Magos are prominent in the “pesebres.”
Día de los Inocentes falls on December 28th. This feast used to be celebrated like a carnival,
where men dressed as the "evil soldiers of Herod" and went house to house, "kidnaping" the first
- born boy from every family. To recover their children, the families offered the soldiers gifts.
This tradition continues today in a small town called Hatillo. The town joins in a parade and later
participates in a public party at the town square. This carnival originated in the Canary Isles, and
was brought to Puerto Rico by immigrants. The celebration in the rest of the island is more like
April Fool's Day where people trick each other.
Despedida de Año or Año Viejo is New Year's Eve (December 31st). It is celebrated in Borinquen
with firecrackers and parties that last until morning. When the clock begins to chime for midnight
some people eat one grape at every chime - for good luck. Then at midnight everyone hugs, and
people go outside and honk the car horns and there are fireworks everywhere. A few minutes
later most Boricuas listen to "El Brindis del Bohemio," a traditional poem for that occasion.
Víspera de Reyes is the eve of El Día de Reyes (January 5th). Traditional Catholics meet to pray
the rosary and to honor the three Wise Men (saints in the Catholic faith). The children get ready
to receive gifts from the three Wise Men by collecting freshly cut grass to put in a shoe box for the
Wise Men's camels to eat. Their "wish list" is placed on top of the grass. Grandparents, aunts,
uncles and friends ask children to put a box under their bed too - just in case. The Reyes only
come if the child has been good all year and if the children are awake they bypass the house. On
this night children sleep lightly, listening for any strange noises, whispers, or maybe sounds of the
camels' hooves, or any tale-tale signs of the Kings' arrival. Sometime during the night Los Reyes
arrive and quietly leave their gifts for the children while their camels enjoy their snack.
Día de Reyes is on January 6th. This is much like Christmas on the mainland. Children wake up
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
much too early to check out what Baltazar, Melchor, and Gaspar left them. Family and friends
gather to celebrate. Los Reyes arrive before dawn on January 6th. For centuries Puerto Rican
children have celebrated Los Reyes in the same manner as their grandparents did when they
were children. January 6 is called Epiphany and is traditionally the day in which the Magi arrived
bearing gifts for the Christ child. Even to this day in Hispanic countries throughout the world,
January 6 is the day that children receive their Christmas gifts, in commemoration of the Magi's
visit.
January 6th - Saint Gaspar's Day of Feast
January 7th - Saint Melchor's Day of Feast
January 8th - Saint Baltazar's Day of Feast
Octavas and Octavitas - On January 9th (after the last of the Kings days) and last for eight days.
Originally these were more religious in nature and were used to glorify the Reyes and the Christ
child. Copas were dedicated to the magi. Copas: "Se fueron los Reyes con mucha alegría,
vienen las octavas - Dios nos de salud para celebrarlas." Octavitas began right after the Octavas
and were eight more days of continued adoration. These were a prelude to la Cuaresma (Lent).
More recently if you received a visit from a friend or relative on Three Kings' day, you are
supposed to return the visit eight days later. Today most families choose this day to take off the
Christmas decorations and "officially" end Christmas. Source: (El Boricua - www. Elboricua.com)
Traditional Christmas Observed - The season traditionally starts on December 12, the Feast of
Our Lady of Guadalupe, continues with Las Posadas, and ends on January 6, El Día de los
Reyes Magos (theDay of the Three Kings).
Las Posadas - Children gather to sing and beg for shelter for Mary and Joseph. The tradition of
Las Posadas takes place on the nine nights between December 16 and 24. Each night the
devout reenact the journey of Mary and Joseph who sought shelter in Bethlehem. Singing and
carrying tiny figures of Joseph and Mary, the candlelight procession goes from house to house
seeking admission, but no one opens their doors. On the last night, however, one house does
open its door, the people enter, and the holy figures are placed reverently in the household
nacimiento (creche). After prayers and from that point on it is all party, piñatas filled with candies,
their is music, dancing, food, and distribution of candy bags. Nowadays, churches and schools
carry on this lovely custom more than individual parish families.
La Noche Buena - (Traditional Christmas Eve). Christmas Eve is called La Noche Buena.
Outside, luminarios (real farolitos) are lit. Votive candles are placed in a brown pape bag with
sand in the bottom. These luminarios light the path for the Holy Family on their journey to
Bethlehem. The shepherds also carry luminarios searching for the Christ Child.
La Misa de Gallo/Media Noche - (Midnight Mass celebration), recalling the legend of the rooster
on the first Noche Buena who flew above the manger and announced, "Cristo nacío" (Christ is
born), whereupon a second rooster crowed, “¡En Belén!" in Bethlehem.
Source: (Campbell, R. C. (1995). Two Eagles in the Sun. pp. 95,96).
Miércoles de Ceniza - (Ash Wednesday). Coming from indigenous traditions, the ashes
symbolize not only the church's meaning but the unity of people with Mother Earth, explains
Virgilio Elizondo.
Via de Cruz - (The Stations of the Cross). Each station of the cross at the church is recently
observed and accompanied by a special prayer for each station. The prayers of the Stations of
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
the Cross are prayed during the Lent season.
El Domingo de Palmas - (Palm Sunday) has its entry pageant, sometimes with music and palm
branches.
Jueves Santo - (Holy Thursday) On Holy Thursday is the washing of the feet of the people by the
priest, following and it is also the Last Supper, with receiving of the Holy Communion.
Viernes Santo - (Good Friday) consists of afternoon prayer service of three hours with the Seven
Words (Siete Palabras). The Virgin's sorrow is remembered to guide the people in their own and
each other's sorrow.
Sábado Santo - (Holy Saturday) Saturday is the service of the Lord's burial or Vigilia Pascual. In
the Vigilia Pascual candles are lit, as symbols of the risen Christ. Sometimes these candles are
taken home to be lit in family gatherings.
Agua Bendita - (Sacramental Holy Water). In this service, sacramental water is blessed for
persons to be baptized.
Domingo de Pascua - (Easter Sunday). Sunday of the Lord's Resurrection. Processions
followed by Sunday Mass with emphasis on renewing baptismal vows. (Source: Campbell, R. C.
(1995). Two Eagles in the Sun.)
Zozobra - The Santa Fe Fiesta - "The Burning Man." Zozobra represents Old Man Gloom - out
with the old and in with the new. It is a new beginning or "New Year"for Santa Feans. Each year
at the Santa Fe Fiesta a huge effigy is burned, it exposes the universal appeal of fire as symbolic
of life and catharsis. Zozobra carries with it the ethnic tensions of the Southwest and America's
racial legacy. Zozobra and the Santa Fe Fiesta are products of cultural politics running wild in the
first three decades of the 1900s. It was a time of seeking cultural purity, of preserving it and
protecting it from "mass culture," of discovering and defining culture before it became so blurred
as to be unrecognizable or discernable. The Fiesta was a compliment to the resurfacing of Santa
Fe, returning it to a nostalgic image of what it had been before the Anglos made it "everytown"
America. Following the Mexican Cession more and more Anglos moved to Santa Fe. If one were
to visit Santa Fe in 1900, it would bear little resemblance to the Santa Fe of today. The once
wooden - sided Greek Revivals have since been covered over with stucco and colored in desert
pastels. Another important aspect of this remaking of Santa Fe and the revival of its community
Fiesta was the myth of tri-cultural harmony. The myth of three cultures living in harmony, yet
remaining distinctive, gave Santa Fe an aura of progressiveness and tolerance. The Fiesta gave
Santa Fe's residents an opportunity to smooth over the ethnic tensions that began with the
Spanish conquest and extended to the Mexican Cession of its Northern Territory to the United
States. This myth is today still quite actively promoted.
Source: http"//www.unm.edu/~hockettj/MenofFire.html 10-12-00.
16 de Septiembre - Independence day from Spain 1810
Cinco de Mayo - Battle of Puebla that ended the French intervention in Mexico in 1862.
El Día de la Raza - Celebration of blending of the indigenous people with the Spaniards.
VIII. Hispanic/Latino Organizations
This manual attempts to provide the reader with a general overview of the Hispanic/Latino
community. It is impossible, and definitely not feasible to provide an extensive overview of the
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
Hispanic/Latino community here. LULAC and NCLR, the two most prominent Hispanic/Latino
organizations in the country, maintain excellent websites with up-to-date information on
Hispanic/Latino issues:
League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC). The founding of the League of United Latin
American Citizens (LULAC) marked an important moment in the history of Hispanic people in the
United States. It signaled the end of one era and the beginning of another. It embodied the will
of a people to overcome inequality, discrimination and injustice, to claim their rights as United
States citizens, and to access the American dream. The foundation of LULAC was started by
three outstanding organizations of the day. The Knights of America, Council number 4 of the
Order of the Sons of America, and the League of Latin American Citizens.
The Philosophy of LULAC - We believe in the democratic principle of individual political and
religious freedom, the right of equality of social and economic opportunity, and in the cooperative
endeavor toward the development of an American Society wherein the cultural resources,
integrity and dignity of every individual and group constitute basic assays of the American way of
Life. We believe American Citizens we must assume our duties and responsibilities and assert
our rights and privileges in pursuit of a fuller and river civilization for our country.
For the early LULAC members, the battle had just begun. Anglos did not look kindly upon
Mexican Americans trying to improve their education. LULAC members were harassed and
ostracized in many ways. Many were hounded out of the jobs and businesses for joining the
League. (Source: http:www.lulac.org)
National Council of La Raza (NCLR). The National Council of La Raza (NCLR) is a private,
nonprofit, nonpartisan, tax-exempt organization established in 1968 to reduce poverty and
discrimination, and improve life opportunities, for Hispanic Americans. NCLR has chosen to work
toward this goal through two primary, complementary approaches:
(1) Capacity - building assistance to support and strengthen Hispanic community-based
organizations: providing organizational assistance in management, governance, program
operations, and resource development to Hispanic community-based organizations in urban
and rural areas nationwide, especially those which serve low-income and disadvantaged
Hispanics.
(2) Applied research, policy analysis, and advocacy: providing a Hispanic perspective on
issues such as education, immigration, housing, health, employment and training, and civil
rights enforcement, to increase policy-making and public understanding of Hispanic needs,
and to encourage the adoption of programs and policies which equitably serve Hispanics.
NCLR strengthens these efforts with public information, and media activities, and special and
international projects. These include innovative projects, catalytic efforts, formation of and
participation in coalitions, and other special activities which use the NCLR structure and credibility
to create other entities or projects which are important to the Hispanic community, and can
sometimes be "spun off" as independent entities.
NCLR is the largest constituency-based national Hispanic organization, serving all Hispanic
nationality groups in all regions of the country. NCLR has over 230 formal affiliates who together
serve 39 states, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia - and a broader network of more than
20,000 groups and individuals nationwide - reaching more than three million Hispanics annually.
Capacity-building assistance to support and strengthen local Hispanic groups - provided from
NCLR's Washington, D.C., headquarters and its field offices in Los Angeles, Phoenix, Chicago,
San Antonio, and San Juan, Puerto Rico - focuses on resource development, program
operations, management, and governance. NCLR provides services not only to its own affiliates,
but also to other local Hispanic organizations, unlike organizations which serve only their own
NMIP © 20000 Hispanic/Latino(a) Lecture Notes
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